PEWTER AND THE KEVTVAL OF ITS USE. 697 



incidental commentary on the primitive lighting arrangements of 

 the time is contained in the rnle that no work is to be done at night, 

 and it is easy to understand that work produced under the flare of a 

 rough flambeau, or, on the other hand, by the meager light of a tallow 

 candle, was not likely to enhance the reputation of the craft. As 

 just mentioned, the penalties for bad workmanship, or for inferior 

 quality of metal, were forfeiture of the articles and fines; suspension 

 from membership was also inflicted in some cases, and for very bad 

 or often-repeated oifenses, expulsion. This last practically amounted 

 almost to outlawry, for unless the offending member were readmitted 

 it deprived him of his livelihood; since, if not a member, he could 

 neither buy nor sell nor be emjDloyed. No master was to employ a 

 workman without a character from the last employer, nor was he, 

 under any circumstances, to entice away another's workman. 



The qualities of j^ewter were also prescribed to prevent adultera- 

 tion and inferior qualit}^ of metal being used. These regulations 

 were always strictly enforced, and the control of the guild over the 

 trade was fostered by the Crown and Parliament for many ages, its 

 effect ])eing to set up a A'ery high standard of quality, both of mate- 

 rial and workmanship, and thus maintain the excellent reputation 

 of English pewter, besides insisting on a code of commercial morality 

 which could not but have a great effect on the members as citizens. 



The craft at tliis time consisted of three grades: The livery, or 

 brethren, from whom were elected the wardens and other officers of 

 the craft; tlie freemen, or j'eomanry, members who had obtained 

 license to set up in business for themselves, and the covenant men 

 (journeymen) and apprentices. One of the rules most strictly en- 

 forced was that no members were allowed to go to law with one 

 another, all disputes having to be submitted for decision to the 

 warden and craft, thus keeping in view the idea of brotherhood in 

 the society. 



These ordinances, it must be remembered, were promulgated by 

 the body called the Craft of Pewterers; and although there was 

 doubtless a fraternity of workmen prior to this, and probably dating 

 from quite early times, the regulations in question, having now been 

 ratified by the lawful government of the city, first put the control 

 of the trade on a legitimate basis. It must also be remarked that 

 such control, though absolute, was not despotic, an a^^peal always 

 lying to the lord mayor and aldermen in cases of injustice and 

 oppression. In fact, not only under the Craft of Pewterers, but 

 afterwards under the duly chartered Pewterers' Company, the city 

 fathers often interfered in case of an arbitrary exercise of power, 

 without any appeal to them having been lodged. With all the 

 faults of the paternal government of trade during the middle ages 

 the spirit of 'the guilds was distinctly democratic, and such regula- 



