486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 64 



heatus^ the cobras Naja jiava, N. haje, Sepedon haemachates, N. nigri- 

 collis, and A^ melanoleuca, and the mambas Deiidroaspis angustice'ps^ 

 D. jamesoni, and D. viridis. In South America approxunately 3,000 

 deaths from snakebite are reported annually, most of which are caused 

 by the tropical rattlesnake Grotalus durissus terrlflcus^ the f er-de-lance 

 Bothrops atrox and related species, and the bushmaster Lacliesis muta. 

 In Australia the tiger snake Notechis scutatios, the death adder Acan- 

 thophis antarcticus^ the taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus, and the brown 

 snakes Dennansia have all been implicated in deaths to humans. 

 While most of the Pacific islands between 130° E.-1T0° E., New Zea- 

 land, the Hawaiian Islands, and some others are free of venomous 

 snakes, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Philippines, and Japan 

 contain several venomous forms. The more dangerous snakes in 

 Papua and New Guinea are the death adder and brown snakes, while 

 the mamushi, AgJcistrodon hlomhoffi, is the commonest venomous snake 

 in Japan. In Malaya the pit viper Agkistrodon rhodostoma is re- 

 sponsible for a large number of bites and some deaths. In the United 

 States there are approximately 6,000 cases of snake venom poisoning 

 reported each year, with an average of 14 deaths a year. The most 

 dangerous snakes in that country are the coral snake Micrurus fulvius 

 and the rattlesnakes Grotalus adanianteus^ C. atrox, C. viridis helleri, 

 and C. SGutulatus. 



Fortmiately, since the advent of antivenins and their extensive dis- 

 tribution, the case fatality rates for snake- venom poisoning in the vari- 

 ous endemic areas of the world have been declmmg very significantly. 

 In the United States the fatality rate has fallen from 11 percent to less 

 than 1 percent since the introduction and widespread use of antivenin. 

 Today hyperantivenms are being produced by exposing the immunized 

 animal to certain of the very active fractions of venoms in a mixture 

 with the whole venom. It is quite probable that within the not too 

 distant future it will be possible to recommend the use of a single 

 antivenin for the treatment of envenomation by Viperidae, Crotalidae, 

 and Elapidae. 



Poisonings by arthropods are common in many areas of the world, 

 although statistics on the incidence of the bites or stings of these ani- 

 mals are lacking. In Mexico during 1957 there were 1,495 deaths due 

 to the stmgs of scorpions, while in the United States at least 26 deaths 

 a year are attributed to the bites or stings of arthropods ; almost twice 

 the number attributed to the bites of the venomous snakes. Stingings 

 by venomous marine animals are also common in many parts of the 

 world. In the United States, where studies have been made on the 

 incidence of stingings by these animals, it has been found that approx- 

 imately 750 people a year are stung by stingrays, 300 persons a year 

 are stung by the scorpion fishes, 300 a year by venomous catfishes, and 

 an undetermined number by coelenterates, sponges, and certain 



