METEOROLOGY IN RUSSIA. 271 



of exaggeration in this opinion. The enormous extent of country over 

 "which the meteorological stations were scattered prevented their fre- 

 quent revision, a condition necessary to the successful working of 

 a meteorological system. The instruments of the stations were not fre- 

 quently enough compared with the standards. All this certainly rendered 

 the observations less valuable than they would otherwise have been, 

 yet the location of the observatories, especially those of Barnaul and 

 of Nertschinsk, in a country the study of which is especially important 

 to meteorology, rendered even second-rate observations valuable. On 

 the other hand, the liberality of the Kussian government in publishing 

 the observations in full was of great use to science. It is onlj' within 

 the last ten or fifteen years that we have learned the great \'alue of ac- 

 tual observations, while in former times monthly means were thought 

 quite sufficient. The Eussian imblicatious were not valued as highly 

 as they merited, because they were in advance of their time, and we 

 are now able to say that the system of observations and publications 

 established by the Kussian government was not a failure, but rendered 

 good service to science. 



About the year 18G5 efforts were made to extend the meleorological 

 observations and establish a system of telegraphic bulletins. The min- 

 isters of the navy and public instruction took an interest in the 

 enterprise, but the practical result was next to nothing. 



After the death of Kupfer, Kiimtz was nominated director of the 

 physical observatory. Extensive reforms in the organization of the 

 meteorological system began at this time, and were continued by his 

 successor. Dr. H. Wihl. The physical observatory is now placed under 

 the authority of the academy of sciences, and that body has the choice 

 of its director. A new set of instruments was ordered to be made, 

 compared at the observatory, and sent to the different stations. The 

 centigrade scale for the thermometer, and metrical divisions for 

 the barometer, and rain-gauge have been in use since 1870, so that 

 nearly the whole continent of Europe have the same measures for the 

 meteorological instruments. The German meteorological system, directed 

 by Dove, alone forms an exception, having the Eeaumur scale for the 

 thermometer and the old French measures for barometer and rain- 

 gauge. The form of publication was also changed; hourly observa- 

 tions had ceased since 1868 except at Tiflis, and it was decided to 

 publish the observations made thrice a day, without any difference 

 between stations maintained by the government and those of private 

 observers. The first Annales published in this way were those of 1865; 

 those of 1866, 1867, and 1868 were in the same form, while the obser- 

 vations of 1870 and 1871, made after the new system, are already pub- 

 lished, and those of 1872 in active preparation. No meteorological 

 system in Europe has a publication of the same importance, for 

 it must be repeated that original data are especially necessary in the 

 present condition of science. These data must be printed to render 



