C. J. Sundevall on the Wings of Birds. 409 



The Waders are in general good jfliers, and in most of them 

 the carpus stands on a level with the shoulder; but in 

 Ardea, Ciconia, Grus, and many which have the longest 

 wings, it stands further forward. In the Rallidae, on the 

 contrary, the cubitus is shorter than the humerus. 



In the Gallinse the latter condition usually occurs. 



In all Eaptorial birds the cubitus extends in front of the 

 shoulder, in some nearly one fifth of its own length (e. g. 

 Pandion) . 



The Coccyges vary in this as in many points ; but most 

 commonly the carpus projects a little before the shoulder 

 {Columba, Psittacus, and many others; further forward in 

 Coracias; not forward in Picus). 



In the Oscines this latter condition is by far the most 

 general. I know only a single genus — Cinclus — which has so 

 short a cubitus that the carpus does not project before the 

 shoulder. This projection becomes somewhat more con- 

 siderable in those which fly strongly. Hirundo, like Cypselus, 

 seems to have received compensation in the cubitus for the 

 shortness of the humerus ; for the former is about twice as 

 long as the latter, so that the carpus projects forward about 

 one sixth of the whole length of the body in front of the 

 shoulder. 



After this digression from the treatment of the arm- 

 feathers of the wing, we must return to them in order to speak 

 of their size, a point of much importance from a systematic 

 point of view, but hitherto quite neglected. The length of 

 these feathers, as in the case of the wing-bones, can oulv be 

 measured by comparison with the body itself, namely, by 

 their backward extension when the wing is closed. But as 

 those which are seated upon the posterior part of the cubitus 

 must necessarily project beyond the latter unless they are 

 much shorter than those in front of them, they give no 

 certain measurement, but this must always be taken only 

 from the very foremost feathers, placed nearest to the hand. 

 In most birds the quill-feathers diminish a little, more 

 or less, posteriorly in absolute length, and it is a rare 



