394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 195 



Russian investigations of the under-snow fodder from winter pas- 

 tures at the Saranpaul State Reindeer Farm indicate that winter herb- 

 age is rich in crude fats and in nitrogen-free extracts, and that the 

 content of fiber and hemicellulose is higher in winter than in summer 

 herbage. Chemical study of winter and summer lichen herbage 

 showed a higher protein than fat content, particularly in Alectoria 

 jubatta Ach. (7.77 percent) and Umbilicaria yensylvanica (6.27 per- 

 cent) which varied with the season (4). 



Use of lichen fodder in Europe goes back into antiquity, as indicated 

 by prehistoric remains found near Lake Constance in Switzerland (19) . 



LICHENS USED AS FOOD BY MAN 



History. — From the earliest times the food of man has included 

 lichens, sometimes as a delicacy, but more often as a last resort in the 

 face of starvation. Their commercial importance as food for man, 

 however, has decreased, though Hanstien, chief lecturer in the Agri- 

 cultural School at Aas, Norway, long ago prophesied that lichens are 

 destined to become the great popular food for the masses because of 

 their cheapness and nutritive value. The use of lichens for human 

 food has been revived at times, and they were recommended in Sweden 

 as substitute food in 1826, 1841, and 1868 after bad frosts and droughts 

 had affected regular crops. In general, the bitter principle in these 

 plants gives them an unpleasant flavor and unless removed exerts 

 an irritating effect upon the digestive tract of man, causing in- 

 flammation. 



Cetraria islandica probably rates first as lichen food for humans. 

 It is gathered commercially in the Scandinavian countries and in 

 Iceland and sold on the market as "Iceland moss." Schneider says 

 of this "moss" : "Inhabitants of Iceland, Norway and Sweden mix this 

 with various cereals and mashed potatoes from which an uncommonly 

 healthful bread was prepared." Lynge (13) quotes a tradition "that 

 there was no starvation at Modun in 1812 as long as there was brod- 

 mose (bread-moss) left in the forest." Icelanders made the most of 

 lichens as food for humans, collecting great masses of this plant yearly. 

 Two barrels of clean lichens pressed down gave the equivalent of one 

 barrel of the usual grain meal. From this flour they made bread, 

 gruel, porridge, salads, and jelly in various ways. Milk was added and 

 in this form the lichen was the basis of various light and easily 

 digested soups and other delicacies said to be of value for dyspeptics. 

 It was also mixed with flour in making a nonf riable ship's bread which 

 was less subject to weevil attack than ordinary bread. In northern 

 Finland, in times of famine, reindeer moss and rye grain were made 

 into a bread having a taste like that of wheat bran but leaving a sense 

 of heat on the tongue. 



