428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1954 



cians received only £5. When Edward IV of England joined Charles 

 the Bold in the campaign against Louis XI, he brought with him a 

 chief physician, two "body physicians," a surgeon, and 13 assistant 

 barber-surgeons. These men, who attended the sick and wounded, 

 gained valuable experience for dealing with civilian problems, injury, 

 and disease when the wars had ended. 



A century later we find Andreas Vesalius, founder of modern anat- 

 omy, serving as a military surgeon in the armies of Charles V. His 

 contemporary Ambroise Pare, who lived through the reigns of seven 

 French monarchs and served four of them, not only introduced the 

 ligature for arresting hemorrhage resulting from injury or amputa- 

 tion but also used antiseptic salves for dressing wounds. A man of 

 high character, Pare spoke with authority and did more to place sur- 

 gery on a modern basis, as Vesalius had anatomy, than any other per- 

 son until the time of Joseph Lister. Pare was also a pioneer in ad- 

 vancing the art of rehabilitation of the injured. He devised many 

 forms of prosthesis, including wooden arms, legs, mechanical fingers, 

 false noses, and ears — advances that again were adopted by civilian 

 surgeons. 



During the seventeenth century and first half of the eighteenth, ad- 

 vancement of military medicine proceeded slowly, and there was no 

 one comparable to Pare until the last half of the eighteenth century, 

 when James Lind, the great British naval surgeon, appeared on the 

 scene. There was, however, one notable figure in the seventeenth 

 century, Eichard Wiseman, who served the royalist armies in Eng- 

 land throughout the civil war and after the Restoration and who was 

 responsible for many improvements in surgical teclinique, including 

 the art of amputation, especially in the case of gunshot wounds af- 

 fecting the joints. His book, "Severall Chirurgicall Treatises," pub- 

 lished in London in 1676, is one of the important landmarks in the 

 history of surgery, both military and civilian. 



To James Lind, M. D. (1716-1794) (to be distinguislied from 

 James Lind, M. D. [1736-1812], also a Scotsman) of Edinburgh, a 

 surgeon long in the service of the Royal Navy, we owe the first clear- 

 cut proof that scurvy can be prevented by the use of citrus fruits 

 among sailors on long ocean voyages. His "Treatise on the Scurvy," 

 published in 1753,* is a classic, and as a result of it a dread disease, 

 common not only among seamen but in civilian populations where 

 citrus fruits are not readily available, has been virtually eradicated. 



*LInd, J., A treatise of the scurvy. In three parts. Containing an Inquiry 

 into the nature, causes, and cure of that disease; together with a critical and 

 chronological view of what has been published on the subject, Edinburgh, 1753. 

 Reprinted as Lind's Treatise on Scurvy, Stewart, C. P., and Guthrie, D., editors, 

 Edinburgh, 1953. 



