1907.] on Problems of Applied Chemistry. 559 



gradually ceased to entrust the construction of apparatus to ordinary 

 tradesmen, and began to seek the assistance of trained engineers, so 

 as to obtain apparatus constructed in the most rational way, and so to 

 effect a saving in space, time, fuel and labour. This co-operation of 

 the various arts and sciences was distinctly promoted by the technical 

 high schools in France and Germany, more especially the Ecole 

 Centrale at Paris, founded in 18;->(), and the Polytechnics at Karlsruhe, 

 Vienna, Hanover, and Zurich, which sprang into being during the 

 ensuing twenty-five years. 



In Great Britain matters took a somewhat different course. Here 

 the chemical industries had from the first taken their full share in 

 the astounding development of all branches of industry which in this 

 country has for several centuries enjoyed an uninterrupted peace, 

 whilst continental Europe was lacerated by frequent wars, above all 

 by the storms raging during a quarter of a century in the wake of 

 the French Revolulion of 1789. Napoleon's attempt to create 

 industrial progress by special legislation, and by hermetically shutting 

 off the Continent from intercourse Avith England, was not crowned 

 with success ; and the industries artificially nursed by his policy 

 mostly collapsed when, on the conclusion of peace, English merchan- 

 dise was once more freely imported into France, Germany, and other 

 countries. Thus Great Britain had a long lead in all the fields of 

 commerce and industry. 



Some of the most important of the chemical industries have 

 indeed altogether originated in this country, especially that of 

 sulphuric acid and that of chloride of lime, both of which date back 

 as far as the eighteenth century. But it is only fair to remember 

 that some of the most important improvements in these manufactures 

 are due to French inventors and French scientists. Not only that, 

 but we must bear in mind that to France we owe the invention of the 

 Leblanc process, which for three-quarters of a century has enjoyed a 

 practical monopoly in the manufacture of alkali. It is curious to 

 notice how, in this case, England has reciprocated the services 

 rendered to her by France by the development of the other chemical 

 industries just named. The Leblanc process, invented in 1791, and 

 carried out on a large scale in France a few years later, could not be 

 at once introduced into this country, owing to the fact that its first 

 material, common salt, was burdened with an absolutely prohibitive 

 excise duty. The abolition of this tax in 1823 acted like the wave of a 

 magic wand, not merely in calling into life the manufacture of alkali 

 itself, but by giving a strong impetus to all the chemical industries 

 connected therewith, viz., those of sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric 

 acid. Almost immediately the tide of inventions and improvements 

 set in, and a few decades later we find Great Britain absolutely 

 dominant, not merely in the branches just mentioned, but generally 

 in the field of inorganic chemical industries. For many years, up to 

 1870 about, this predominance was not seriously called into question. 



