(THE ecology of the UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN. 317 



perhaps the first to assume a place of prominence, and is the most 

 xerophytic. It is closely followed in point of time and in importance 

 by Cenchrus and the two Andropogons. The remaining species are of 

 secondary importance. Along with the grasses of such a protected 

 area there come in a new set of herbaceous annual and perennial 

 dicotyledons, such as Rhynchosia minima DC, Alysicarpus bupleuri- 

 folius DO., and Grotalaria mysorcnsis Eoth. At times one finds a 

 straggling Zizyphus jujuba or Z. rotundifolia, Lamk., an Acacia 

 arabica, or some other woody plant, but they are not numerous. 



That the grasses cf the protected meadows actually are the 

 result of protection, and not a matter of special soil or moisture 

 relations, is indicated by the fact that they are found all over the 

 area, wherever grazing is lessened or difficult. They flourish even on 

 the dryest of the cliffs, in positions where cattle and goats cannot 

 readily reach them. They already potentially occupy the area, 

 and await only protection from excessive grazing to develop into a 

 more advanced plant formation. 



The areas of thorny shrubs and small trees, which are used to 

 give name to the stage following the dry meadow, are remnants of a 

 pioneer type of forest that has persisted on tracts that have remained 

 uncultivated for considerable time (Figs. 13 and 14). In some places 

 the growth is scattering and savannah-like, in others it is more ' 

 dense (Fig. 15) ; but everywhere the ground is occupied by a typical 

 dry meadow association of grasses (Fig, 13). The principal species 

 comprising this pioneer forest are Capparis sepiaria L., Acacia 

 arabica Willd., A. leucophloea Willd., Balanites aegyptica Delile, 

 Justicia adhatoda L., Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb., Jatropha gossypi- 

 folia L., Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. and Alangium lamarckii Thw. Most 

 of these plants are conspicuously thorny, and are thus protected 

 from complete destruction by grazing animals. Justicia and Jatropha, 

 are the only abundant ones with no obvious protection, yet animals 

 will not eat them even when other vegetation is scarce ; the latter 

 has been introduced from Brazil, and is now completely naturalized 

 and competes successfully with the other plants of the formation. 

 Alangium also is sparingly eaten. Balanites is the most successful 

 as a pioneer in dry unpromising conditions, though the Acacias are 

 not much behind it in this respect. 



Some distance north and west of Allahabad Butea frondosa 

 Roxb., becomes one of the most important of the thorn scrub trees ; 

 there are only straggling outliers to be found in the local area. It is 

 not thorny, but is the ecological equivalent of the thorn scrub plants. 



Wherever such woody vegetation occurs it is more or less con- 

 stantly cut for fuel, and the smaller plants are pruned by grazing 



2563—41 



