Bone histology and paleopathology: 

 Methodological considerations 



Debra L. Martin 



In the last hundred years, identification and analysis of dis- 

 ease processes have dramatically increased in the area of 

 paleopathology. However, prior to the last ten years, analysis 

 had remained primarily descriptive with the aim to identify 

 disease in space and time. Recent emphasis on the interac- 

 tions between biology and culture in the disease process has 

 proven to be fruitful, yielding information concerning human 

 adaptability within an evolutionary framework. A further 

 expansion of the biocultural approach involves using skeletal 

 material as an aid in elucidating processes and bone bio- 

 dynamics in health and disease states. 



Given the interest in skeletal growth, pathology, mainte- 

 nance, and repair, analyses should ideally proceed in a logi- 

 cal and complementary fashion from the gross and mac- 

 roscopic analysis to the histological and microscopic level. 

 Building on this data base, the biochemical and molecular 

 assays can follow. In this manner, identification of patholog- 

 ic conditions, patterns of growth and development, changes 

 in gross morphology, and alterations in the rate of morbidity 

 and mortality can form the contextual framework for the 

 other types of analyses. While emphasis on gross mor- 

 phological features and measurements remains important to 

 the reconstruction of human paleobiology and population 

 success in adjusting to the physical environment, evidence 

 now exists that other skeletal parameters (such as histology) 

 can offer valuable information on health status prior to death 

 (Martin etal. 1985). 



Bone at the microscopic level can be used as a tool, that is, 

 as a model system or biological "window" into the past giv- 

 ing a view of earlier behavior and health of the skeletal sys- 

 tem (Frost 1964). The objectives of paleohistological analy- 

 ses are to assess bone remodeling activity for entire 

 populations and to examine the association of remodeling 

 with age, sex, stature, pathological conditions, and cultural 

 affiliation. The bridging of macroscopic data with micro- 

 scopic data is seen as an essential step toward addressing 

 differential health status across age, sex and culture. Tech- 

 niques used by anthropologists must be based on biomedical 



precedents which are most applicable to archeological speci- 

 mens. These techniques should include measure of bone 

 quantity (cortical thickness, cortical area, and rate of re- 

 modeling) and hone quality (quantification of the size, dis- 

 tribution, and level of mineralization of discrete units of 

 bone). These measures need to be based on well-defined 

 skeletal parameters which are accurate, replicable. and use- 

 ful in comparative analyses. 



Examplesofthetypesof multidimensional analyses which 

 utilize histology include assessment of male and female dif- 

 ferences in bone maintenance, correlation of macroscopic 

 features of bone with microscopic features such as growth 

 arrest, identification of subgroups at risk with respect to 

 problems in bone metabolism, the effect of changing levels 

 of sociopolitical organization and nutrition on health, and the 

 effects of agricultural intensification on growth and develop- 

 ment. 



Given what is currently known concerning the relationship 

 between structural and physiological functions of bone, opti- 

 mal conditions for normal growth and development can be 

 hypothesized. These optimal conditions include adequate 

 nutrition, low disease stress, proper endocrinological func- 

 tion, and normal age-related wear and tear on the skeletal 

 system. If these conditions are not met, the degree of dys- 

 function which results will parallel the seriousness and dura- 

 tion of the stressing agent (Ortner 1976). Analysis of health at 

 the microstructural level can help define not only the exis- 

 tence, but al.so the severity, of stress in individuals with al- 

 tered physiological states. Health information gained in this 

 way can be assessed in conjunction with information from 

 other areas, such as the archeological data. The comprehen- 

 siveness of the data will allow interpretations about the bio- 

 logical evidence of health, the archeological reconstruction 

 of ecological and cultural variables, and the demographic 

 profiles resulting from accumulated morbidity and mortality 

 at the population level. 



Loss of bone (osteopenia) and lack of bone mineralization 

 (osteoporosis) arc the two most important responses that 



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