58 • Debra L. Martin 



(1966:58-59). This lament has perhaps inhibited the growth 

 of histological studies on prehistoric skeletal material, but 

 the overwhelming success of more recent studies should put 

 that attitude to rest. 



Numerous methods have been developed to evaluate the 

 absolute amount of bone present. One noninvasive technique 

 used is photon absorptiometry. Perzigian (1973) used this 

 technique to test the hypothesis that change in diet affected 

 the rate of bone loss. Greater bone loss was found to occur in 

 the agricultural group than in the gathering and hunting 

 groups in an archeological population from Indian Knoll. 



Stout and Teitelbaum ( 1976) offer one of the first detailed 

 methodological considerations on both how to prepare and 

 how to analyze a prehistoric thin section of bone. Practical 

 information concerning embedding, staining, and mounting 

 sections is reviewed. The authors suggest numerous avenues 

 of potential research for the use of bone in the assessment of 

 health and disease. Ortner (1976) also presents a review of 

 the potential application of bone histology to ancient skeletal 

 remains. This study emphasizes the ability of histological 

 properties to give an indication of the aging process, nutri- 

 tional adequacy, and disease status of prehistoric individuals. 

 Martin and co-workers (1985) present a thorough review of 

 the anthropological literature on methods for assessing quali- 

 ty and quantity of diet through the use of histological analy- 

 sis. 



An analysis of skeletal remodeling activity was under- 

 taken for two Illinois Woodland populations representing the 

 shift from intensive, harvest-collecting subsistence to that of 

 com agriculture (Stout 1976). Thin sections of rib were used 

 and turnover rates were calculated, based on the density of 

 remodeled osteons, to estimate actual amounts of bone for- 

 mation per year in square millimeters for each individual. 

 The results indicated a tendency toward increased bone re- 

 modeling rates in the agricultural population. The author 

 suggested several possibilities for this, with dietary inade- 

 quacies serving to explain the findings best. 



Patterns of remodeling have also been determined from 

 microradiographs of femoral cross-sections. Martin and Ar- 

 melagos (1979) combined cortical thickness and area mea- 

 surements with histological analysis of osteons to examine 

 bone loss and maintenance for an adult population from pre- 

 historic Sudanese Nubia. Nubian females exhibit early and 

 dramatic rates of bone loss on the organ level. Analysis of the 

 distribution of osteons and the rate of ostconal remodeling 

 further showed the differences between age-matched males 

 and females. A diet low in calcium, iron, and protein, com- 

 bined with endemic parasitic infestations, and the increased 

 metabolic demands of reproduction created a negative skele- 

 tal balance for young adult Nubian females (Martin and Ar- 

 melagos 1985). 



Weinstein and co-workers ( 1 98 1 ) studied the histology of a 

 Peruvian mummy and found that the histomorphometrics 

 were profoundly dissimilar from normal parameters. The 



researchers concluded that an imbalance between bone for- 

 mation and resorption was the result of a dietary stress. 

 Thompson and Gunness-Hey (1981) used microstructural 

 analysis to examine bone loss in Kodiak Island Eskimo popu- 

 lations. Pfeifter (1981) and Pfeifter and King (1981) used 

 osteon counts of prehistoric Canadian populations to analyze 

 age structure and health. 



Richman and co-workers ( 1979) looked at osteonal varia- 

 tions in Eskimo, Pueblo, and Ankara prehistoric popula- 

 tions. They were able to document a significant increase in 

 the number of growth-arrested osteons in the Eskimos, and a 

 dietary explanation was postulated. 



In summary, the systemic and general nature of human 

 skeletal response to stress has been profitably used on pre- 

 historic remains to interpret the nature of the stressing agen- 

 cies involved via examination of patterns of bone growth, 

 remodeling, repair, and loss. The occurrence of physiologi- 

 cal disruptions at different parts of the life cycle can be exam- 

 ined and compared to the mortality rates of the group. Infor- 

 mation from indirect and direct examination of skeletal 

 remains has been combined with environmental data to pro- 

 vide a more realistic reconstruction of the nutritional and 

 health status of prehistoric groups. 



Conclusions 



In this brief and select overview of the anthropological uses 

 of bone histology, there is ample evidence suggesting that 

 analysis of bone histology can reveal information which far 

 surpasses information obtained from macroscopic analyses 

 only. Aging, disease, and nutritional stress are the main 

 categories which can be tracked using histological analysis. 

 Given that these categories are precisely those used to recon- 

 struct the health dynamics of prehistoric peoples, it seems 

 timely for histology to enter the mainstream of skeletal analy- 

 ses in anthropology. For archeological populations, the as- 

 pect of nutritional and disease stress in endemic or epidemic 

 conditions holds the most potential for interpreting pre- 

 historic adaptation. 



The use of histological analysis can highlight individuals 

 who are experiencing health problems but who do not show 

 gross pathologic changes. Further, subgroups within the pop- 

 ulation can be identified who are most sensitive to stresses 

 which affect skeletal health, and by extension, stresses which 

 affect overall patterns of morbidity and mortality. 



Literature cited 



Barzcl, U.S.. ed. 1979. Osteoporosis II. New York: Grune and 



Stratton. 

 Brothwell, D.. and A.T. Sandison. 1967. Diseases in Antiquity. 



Springfield. III.: Charles C Thomas. 

 Bycrs. P.D. 1977. The Diagnostic Value of Bone Biopsies. In L.V. 



Avioli and S.M. Krane. eds., Metuholic bone Disorders, 183- 



Zagreb Paleopaihology Symp. 1988 



