230 • Charlotte Roberts 



healed. In modem contexts surgical repair of vascular and 

 neurological lesions would be available and thereby lessen 

 healing time. 



SECONDARY DOCUMENTARY SOURCES AND ART FORMS 



In the process of using human skeletal remains from the 

 Roman to late and post-Medieval periods, the availability of 

 documentary sources and art forms becomes apparent, al- 

 though many such sources were produced abroad and the 

 texts translated into English. Sources of documentary and art 

 evidence available for use are books by specific authors (in- 

 cludes herbals; see Rohde 1922); medical manuscripts (e.g., 

 Dawson 1934); illustrations on coins, pottery vessels and 

 frescoes and in manuscripts; and sculpture. 



All these sources are secondary to the primary source. The 

 validity of evidence is determined by the author's or artist's 

 "clinical acumen" and by modern interpretation of docu- 

 ments and artforms. Although these sources of evidence are 

 invaluable for workers in this field, they should be used with 

 caution. 



Authors may use words which have changed in meaning 

 through time , or the words may describe something of which 

 the people in the past did not know the meaning (Marwick 

 1970:4). Some words used in everyday speech may actually 

 be confusing when used in a historical context. Translation of 

 certain words from one language to another (e.g., Latin to 

 English) may prove dift'icult if there is not an exact equivalent 

 of the word. Historical writing is interpretative and there 

 must therefore be a subjective element therein. All authors 

 and artists working in each period portray history influenced 

 by their own interests. Some historians may pay particular 

 attention to certain areas of interest and ignore others. As 

 primary sources are often fragmentary, there is a tendency for 

 conflicting conclusions (Marwick 1970:23). The very nature 

 of the raw material, however, dictates the historian's function 

 to convert it into the finished product by whatever means. 



Illustration and sculpture of events in the past also reflect 

 the prevailing and stylistic conventions at the time of produc- 

 tion. Before the advent of television, photography, film and 

 printing the only way to convey information was to make a 

 picture of it. The artist or sculptor may produce what he/she 

 wishes to portray to observers and not the true factual record 

 of the event in question. Nevertheless, this source of evidence 

 is invaluable for the study of the treatment of trauma in 

 antiquity and, as Herriinger ( 1970:7) said, "A good illustra- 

 tion is often better than a thousand words." 



Documentary and art evidence for treatment in the past is 

 abundant in the sources for each period under consideration. 

 Its abundance, however, docs vary; illustrations and docu- 

 mentary evidence are, of course, more prominent in the Me- 

 dieval and later periods rather than in earlier times. However, 

 much of the evidence in the later periods has clear connec- 

 tions with earlier Greco-Roman medicine and surgery as 



displayed in early texts. A large quantity of relevant docu- 

 mentary material was transferred to Britain from the east by 

 travelers and invaders of the island. However, before texts 

 came to Britain they were mixed with ancient Roman re- 

 ligion, Mediterranean folk elements, and magico-religious 

 ideas from the Far East (Grattan and Singer 1952). Texts were 

 translated into English from Latin, mainly by monastic 

 scribes, and made more accessible to a wider cross-section of 

 society. 



In the Roman period much of the medical and surgical 

 knowledge was gained from earlier Greek practice and tradi- 

 tion. By the sixth century B.C. the Greeks had contact with 

 Egypt and had gained much valuable information. Medical 

 dogma, especially in the Anglo-Saxon period, was modified 

 by Celtic elements, southern Italian influences, and Anglo- 

 Saxon tradition. In the Medieval period a new influence 

 came from the Arabic medical world, works which were then 

 translated into Latin. 



The synthesis of different sources of information seems to 

 have been a mixture of ideas from Britain and abroad. Much 

 of this medical and surgical evidence can be traced to its 

 original source and therefore differences between primary 

 and secondary sources can be noted. It is necessary to take an 

 overall view of the evidence to assess any inconsistencies 

 which may arise. Nevertheless, there is much value in using 

 these sources of evidence for reconstructing past treatment of 

 trauma. 



The use of documentary and art evidence in the context of 

 this research is undoubtedly hazardous. No one person has 

 comprehensive knowledge of all the subject areas which 

 need to be covered. A multidisciplinary approach to trauma 

 and treatment is therefore the basis of the current research. In 

 that respect, there is a need to rely on experts in other fields of 

 study such as art and documentary research, to supply evi- 

 dence to supplement and integrate with the rest of the data. 

 While the limitations are clear and realized, the evidence will 

 be used. 



ETHNOGRAPHICAL DATA 



The use of data from modem primitive societies on medical 

 and surgical treatment of trauma is a further method of recon- 

 structing this complex feature of past societies. Direct evi- 

 dence of medicine and surgery in early man is meager, al- 

 though secondary sources are abundant. It is reasonable to 

 assume that modern primitive societies have retained the 

 characteristics of their prehistoric predecessors in the field of 

 medicine (Ackerknecht 1982:10). 



Although modem primitive societies are removed from 

 ancient populations under study in terms of time and space, 

 they are probably the most comparable equivalent. However, 

 use of this type of data has received some criticism in the 

 past. Scholars believed that information from modem primi- 

 tive peoples was too different to use to explain archeological 



Zagreb Paleopathology Symp. 1988 



