History oj Forest Ecology 399 



understand the underlying causes. This was a purely utilitarian 

 attitude; it was upon this empiricism that the modern science of 

 silviculture laid the corner-stone of its foundation. The most 

 recent development of forest ecology has to do with the testing of 

 old theories and practices of silviculture by scientific investigation 

 and in that way substantiating or modifying our old ideas. 



Before discussing the development of the biological phases of 

 silviculture {i. e., forest ecology), I will speak briefly of the develop- 

 ment of silvicialture based upon empiricism. 



The Development oj Silviculture Based upon Empiricism (54, 81) 



As Fernowhas so ably pointed out, if there is one lesson that can 

 be profitably derived from the study of the history of forestry, it 

 is that history repeats itself. The same principles, theories, method, 

 and practices which are occupying the attention of American 

 foresters today have confronted foresters elsewhere at some earlier 

 time, because all countries pass through the same periods of devel- 

 opment. For this reason in no science like in forestry are we able 

 to profit so much by the mistakes of others. 



The beginning of silviculture in the forest history of a country 

 properly begins with the first attempts to secure young forest 

 growth. Usually natural reproduction methods are first employed 

 to accomplish this. As to just what time in the history of a 

 country this stage of development sets in, and how fast it progresses 

 when once started depends upon industrial, social, economic, and 

 political conditions. The time of its inauguration, as we well 

 know, may even vary greatly in different sections of the same 

 country. Owing to such conditions being particularly favorable, 

 the greatest and most universal development of silviculture is to 

 be found in Germany, the pioneer nation in the practice of forestry. 

 In its forest history we find all the stages through which other 

 nations have passed or eventually will have to pass. Moreover, the 

 forest policies of many nations have been modeled after the German 

 plan and many nations have been influenced in their silvicultural 

 practice by German precedent. For these reasons I will confine 

 the historical discussion of silviculture largely to Germany, although 

 the data given will apply equally well to most other European 

 countries where conditions are similar. 



The latter part of the middle ages in Germany saw forest condi- 

 tions in a great many respects similar to those which obtained in 



