Chapter I — 5 — General Introduction 



From water and mud Russell (1891) isolated six organisms which he 

 believed to be new species. Unfortunately they were only incompletely 

 described, and cultures were not maintained for further study. His Bacil- 

 lus liloralis is now listed in the Bergey (1939) Manual as Achromobacter 

 litorale, and Spirillum marinum is listed as Vibrio marinu. His Bacilluss 

 thalassophilus is probably synonymous with Bacillus sphaericus, his Clado- 

 thrix intricata is believed to be the same as Bacillus mycoides, his Bacillus 

 limosus is the same as Bacillus cereus, and his Bacillus granulosis is claimed 

 to be synonymous with Bacillus lumescens (see ZoBell and Upham, 1944)- 

 The four organisms in this latter group will be recognized as soil species 

 which may be only adventitious or transitory inhabitants of the sea. Rus- 

 sell described Bacillus halophilus as a non-spore-former, so it probably 

 should be listed as Bacterium halophihmi. It, as well as Achromobacter 

 litorale and Vibrio marina, was characterized as requiring either sea water 

 or 3 per cent NaCl solution for growth. As far as is known the last three 

 named organisms live exclusively in the sea. 



At Woods Hole, Massachusetts, Russell (1892) examined samples 

 from depths as great as 140 meters collected at distances as far as 100 

 miles from land. The water was found to contain from five to 1 20 bacteria 

 per ml., with little difference in abundance at different depths. An aver- 

 age of 17,000 bacteria per ml. was found in bottom deposits. Several 

 physiological types of bacteria were demonstrated. Most of the bacteria 

 were aerobes or microaerophiles which liquefied gelatin and digested 

 casein. Many of them reduced nitrate. Pigment production and pleo- 

 morphism were common. No pathogens were found. 



Several of the organisms found at Woods Hole were recognized as be- 

 ing the same as species in the Gulf of Naples, although a few distinctive 

 species were observed. Russell (1893) described three new species of 

 marine bacteria at Woods Hole, including Bacillus limicola, B. maritimus, 

 and B. pelagic us. 



While on the solar eclipse expedition to Vadso on the vessel Neptun, 

 Feankland and Burgess (1897) made some interesting though rather 

 fragmentary observations on the occurrence of bacteria in the North At- 

 lantic Ocean, In sea water having a temperature of 7.8° C. a few miles 

 from the North Cape of Europe (70° 11' N. Lat.), they demonstrated an 

 average of 51 bacteria per ml. The samples were collected from a depth 

 of about 2 feet. The plates were incubated for five days at 20° C. 



As a member of the Nathorst Expedition to Spitzbergen, Levin (1899) 

 bacteriologically analyzed sea water in the vicinity of Spitzbergen, Bear 

 Island, and King Charles Land. Using questionable cultural procedures, 

 he found fewer than one per ml. in all samples examined in water ranging 

 in temperature from - 1.5° to 3° C. Near the surface he found one bac- 

 terium in II ml. of Arctic water from melting ice, one in 4 ml. of water 

 from a depth of 25 meters and one in 1.3 ml. of water from a depth of 

 2700 meters. Spirilla were the most numerous, followed by rods and 

 cocci. No anaerobes were found. He was unable to demonstrate any 

 microorganisms in Arctic air, contrary to the findings of more recent 

 investigators. 



The inadequacy of Levin's cultural procedures is indicated by the 

 fact that he found no bacteria in the intestinal tracts and feces of marine 

 animals which he examined. With the exception of sea gulls, the viscera 

 of sea birds were also reported to be sterile. A bacterium resembling 

 Escherichia coli was demonstrated in the intestines of polar bears and 



