144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
mined with reasonable certainty the reasons which prompted their estab- 
lishment just as they are, and it is a main object of this paper to discuss 
those reasons. In studying this subject, it is necessary that, using our 
modern knowledge as a control, we immerse ourselves as much as pos- 
sible both in the spirit of those times, and also in the then prevalent 
state of knowledge of the country. The latter is of course best shown 
by the contemporary maps, and in no line of inquiry are old maps of 
such vital importance. The maps are not of course authoritative docu- 
ments on the establishment of boundaries, but they reflect the opinion 
of the times as to those boundaries, and they show almost exactly the 
state of geographical knowledge prevailing and the geographical assump- 
tions under which the boundaries were laid down. Many a boundary 
anomaly, utterly mysterious when traced upon a modern map, becomes 
clear in the light of a map of the time it was established, as will be 
illustrated often in the following pages. 
D. THE Kinps oF BOUNDARIES AND THEIR PURPOSES. 
In considering the actual boundaries of any country, we are faced 
at once by these two questions, first, what kinds of boundaries exist, and 
second, for what reasons or purposes are boundaries established. 
1. THe Kinps or BounpArites.—These are of two general sorts, 
natural and artificial. 
Natural Boundaries are best when they (1) naturally separate 
peoples, for which purpose they must be themselves uninhabitable, and 
(2) are unmistakable. Such are the sea and its branches, rivers and 
lakes, mountains or lesser watersheds. The very best of all boundaries 
is the open sea, and that country is best bounded which reigns supreme 
on an island. Arms of the sea form nearly as good boundaries, as 
Chaleur and Fundy show, and the same is true of large lakes. One 
would suppose that rivers would come next in value, but in fact they 
do not unless very large, for the reason that they are easily crossed 
by boat or bridge and the people living upon the two banks are likely 
to be of common race and sure to be of common interests, and hence 
should be inclosed within one boundary. Hence rivers are selected as 
boundaries only when some special political consideration prevails over 
convenience, or when boundaries are laid down in advance of settlement. 
It is for this reason that the rivers have been disregarded in laying out 
most of the county boundaries of New Brunswick, a wise measure bring- 
ing the peoples living upon both sides of the same river within the same 
county. How unfortunate a boundary a river can form is well illus- 
trated by the St. John above Grand Falls, which separates and brings 
