Contents xiii 



Commensalism 374 



Commensalism witli C'ontinuous (>ontact 374 



Commensalism without Continuous Contact 377 



Antagonism 381 



Antibiosis 383 



Exploitation 385 



Parasitism 386 



Predation 392 



Competition 396 



Chapter 11 • THE COMMUNITY 401 



Community Concept 401 



Community Dominance 408 



Ecotone 410 



Community Composition 414 



Stratification of the Community 420 



Chapter 12 • SUCCESSION AND FLUCTUATION 425 



Ecological Succession 425 



Dispersal and Invasion 427 



Barriers 428 



Ecesis 429 



Succession and Climax 430 



Types of Succession 432 



Primary Succession 432 



Secondary Succession 435 



Convergence 438 



Succession in Special Habitats 438 



Modification of Succession 444 



Community Classification 447 



Community Type 447 



The Biome 448 



Fluctuation within the Community 451 



Irruptive Fluctuation 453 



Year-Class Analysis 454 



Cyclic Fluctuation 457 



Causes of Fluctuation 458 



Origin of Cycles 460 



Chapter 13 ■ DYNAMICS OF THE ECOSYSTEM 465 



Fundamental Operation 465 



Principal Steps and Components 466 



Niches 468 



Trophic Levels and Relations 469 



Ecological Cycle in the Ocean 473 



Producers 474 



Consumers 476 



Herbivores 476 



Carnivores 479 



Decomposers and transformers 481 



