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portant. For one thing, the translation and in particular the copy- 
ing by the monks of manuscripts was the only way to increase the 
number of copies of books, printing being not yet invented. Also, 
the monastic gardens served to keep alive the herbs and simples 
used in medicine and pharmacy and also the knowledge of their 
“virtues.” Probably these same gardens were the sources of many 
of the botanical specimens figured and described in the wonderful 
herbals of the 16th and 17th centuries. 
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there was a gradual intel- 
lectual awakening 

a foreshadowing of the Renaissance. An im- 
portant factor in this awakening was doubtless the founding of 
great universities—Paris, 1110; Bologna, 1113; Oxford, 1167; 
Cambridge, 1209; Padua, 1222; and Naples, 1224. In all these 
universities pharmacy was taught as a part of the course in 
medicine. 
Noteworthy in the history of pharmacy was the edict of Frederic 
IT of Sicily (1224) which regulated both the practice of medicine 
as well as that of pharmacy. It refers to the apotheca as a ware- 
house where drugs were stored (the term “apothecary” came into 
use at about this time), to the compounder of drugs as the con- 
fectionarius, reviving an old Roman term, and to the seller of drugs 
as the stationarius. There must be no collusion (it said) between 
physician and pharmacist, i.e., no sharing of profits from medicine 
prescribed by the former. Any inspector conniving at a violation 
of the law was punished by death. 
Following is one of the recommendations of that period for the 
behavior of the physician when in the bosom of the family. 
“When entertained by the family, his remarks at the table are to 
be punctuated by continued inquiries regarding the patient, whose 
condition he should always regard as grave in order that either a 
favorable or a fatal termination of the illness might redound to his 
credit. He should not impair his professional standing by flirting 
with his patient’s wife, his daughter, or his maid servants.” 

Fic. 6. A Pharmacy of the 15th Century, with three “savants,” sitting, 
and two attendants on either side. At the table in the rear an apprentice is 
pounding herbs with mortar and pestle. (After Gart der Gesundheit, 
Schonsperger, Augsburg, 1486. From Arnold C. Klebs, 4 catalog of carly 
herbals. L’Art Ancien, 1925.) (10,637) 
