1899] METHOD OF TREATING VARIATIONS 421 
depending upon the immediately surrounding conditions. Thus, whilst 
each new individual represents a fresh combination of the “ possibili- 
ties,” the mingling of the sexual elements is the “ dissolution of the 
chance.” Death is not the giving place to the “more fit,’ nor the 
resignation of the individual for the good of the species, but the natural 
ending that comes to all by whatsoever “ chance.” 
“Utility should therefore be replaced by probability.” The 
individuals of the race start out on life with the same opportunities 
and capabilities, and the probability of the so-called “success in life” 
is inversely proportional to the “chances of death.” By man’s agency 
these latter may be and are continually being altered, and thus give 
rise to appearances which have formed the foundation-stone of natural 
selection. But apart from man it is permissible to conclude from the 
balance of things that the chances of success in life are in exact in- 
verse proportion to the chances of death. If the conditions of life 
were continually recurring, therefore, with periodic regularity, the 
chances would be practically constant and the “balance” of the in- 
dividuals would remain the same. But when the conditions of life 
change and the change remains constant the balance of the organs in 
the individuals is altered. Thus, whilst the adults may or may not 
be affected—for the chances of death may be increased or diminished— 
the combination of organs in the youngest must alter, and from this 
directly-caused change new races will arise. 
A fine distinction, but an important one, should be noted here. 
Darwin observed that species the most widespread and most abundant 
varied the most. This, however, does not truly represent the case. 
As we pass over the different regions inhabited by the species we see 
that the diversity in characters is greater than in a smaller species. In 
reality the “variation,” i.e. the variation-coefficient in the individuals 
of the different regions, may be exactly the same for all, where that 
which is characteristic of the larger species is its greater “ variability.” 
From this aspect of variability we can understand how the in- 
dividuals of a group differ from one another in all parts of the body 
and at all stages of development. No two individuals are “alike,” 
though all are “normal” and equally “fit”? This variability shows 
itself not merely in the earliest stages, but through every stage of de- 
velopment for many characters. Hence we get differences due to 
growth or age, the “balance” of the different organs not remaining the 
same throughout. 
From these fundamental positions Professor Heincke passes to a 
criticism of systems of classification, and to suggestions for a new and 
better one. The older systems have begun with orders and classes and 
worked down towards species and varieties. This method has succeeded 
for the orders, but not for the species. Hence we must begin at the 
other end, below the “species,” and work up to the orders. 
The first group, therefore, is the Race or “Stem” (“Family ”). 
