58 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ATOMIC RADIATION 



the characteristics which, together with environmental, and including engineering and bio- 

 logical factors, provide the keys to waste management. 



Three of the major factors in waste disposal operations are: 



1. The maximum quantity of various radioactive isotopes allowable in the human body 

 or the various human organs. This forms the basis for establishment of maximum permissible 

 concentrations of various isotopes in air, water and food, and includes the ecological implica- 

 tions of biologic concentration of radioactivity by various organisms in our food chain and 

 other highly important, complex, and in some instances unknown biological considerations. 

 From an engineering standpoint, quantitative standards of permissible concentration of radio- 

 active materials or, more importantly, standards of maximum permissible body burdens of 

 radionuclides in air and water are necessary. Such recommended standards are contained in 

 handbooks and publications of the National Committee on Radiation Protection and Meas- 

 urements' and the International Commission on Radiological Protection', and are embodied 

 for regulatory and licensing purposes in FederaP and various State regulations. 



2. The specific nature of the radioactive waste under consideration. This is a highly 

 variable factor which must be considered in specific, quantitative terms. It should be generally 

 understood, for example, that there is little basis for comparison of waste management 

 techniques or problems associated with the liquid wastes emanating from a normally operating 

 water-cooled reactor, and those associated with the aqueous reprocessing of nuclear reactor 

 fuels. 



3. The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the environment into which 

 the waste is to be released. Included here, again in specific, quantitative terms, is knowledge 

 of or data on the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the lithosphere relating to dilution and/or 

 concentration of radioactivity in the environment. 



Essentially then, proper waste management consists of identifying and quantitatively de- 

 scribing items 2 and 3, and their combined behavior, to assure conformance with the stand- 

 ards established in item 1. A very important but sometimes unrecognized distinction is made 

 between standards and the performance or operating criteria necessary to achieve these 

 standards. For the most part, the standards are the result of the best available biological and 

 medical knowledge and are of universal application. One should recognize, however, that 

 due to lack of complete knowledge at the time the standards were formulated, there may be 

 revisions in the standards and their application in the future. Accordingly, such standards 

 must be considered subject to modification as more and better knowledge is gained and also, 

 to some extent, to the degree of risk deemed acceptable under various circumstances. In any 

 case, the recommended standards previously noted are generally accepted and should be used 

 until additional information might indicate the need for revision. Because of the variability of 

 wastes and environment, each waste disposal situation must be evaluated on an individual 

 case basis. Generally the quantitative results of such an evaluation will not be universally 

 applicable. 



1 Maximum permissible body burdens and maximum permissible concentrations of radionuclides in air and 

 water for occupational exposure. Recommendations of the National Committee on Radiation Protection and 

 Measurements. National Bureau of Standards Handbook 69, Superintendent of Documents, 1959. 



- Recommendations of the International Commission on Radioloi>ical Protection, Pergamon Press, Inc., 

 New York, 1959. 



3 Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations. Part 20, "Standard for Protection Against Radiation." 



