24 



LAMBERSON 



islands and sending storm waves over the northeast end of 

 Enewetak Island to a depth of more than 1 m. 



HISTORY AND PREVIOUS 

 OBSERVATIONS 



During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the people of 

 Enewetak Atoll cultivated Tacca, breadfruit, coconut, 

 Pandanus, and other plants on the atoll and traded copra 

 to the Germans. Some of the coconut trees planted in neat 

 rows during German times still survive and produce 

 coconuts. German soil used as ballast in ships was de- 

 posited on the island of Japtan to promote coconut 

 growth. Plants and plant parts were utilized extensively in 

 the Marshall Islands for food, drink, building materials (for 

 houses and canoes), utensils, clothing, toys, medicine, and 

 other uses (Anon., 1951; Bryan, 1972). 



In 1914, Japan acquired Enewetak as a result of a 

 World War I mandate, and a Japanese trader and his assis- 

 tants resided on the atoll. The first known botanical collec- 

 tion from Enewetak was one of Pandanus made by Ohba 

 in 1934 and published by Kanehira (1935). In the early 

 1940s, the Japanese cleared parts of some of the islands 

 for construction of military fortifications, including an air- 

 field on Enjebi. 



In 1944, the atoll was attacked and captured by 

 United States forces. The heavy shelling during the battle 

 and subsequent clearing and grading resulted in large-scale 

 destruction of the vegetation on Enjebi, Medren (then 

 called Parry), and Enewetak Islands. Bryan (1944) 

 described the atoll's vegetation at that time and noted that 

 Medren resembled a plowed field with almost no plants at 

 all. Bryan's report and 1954 Army Map Service maps 

 based on aerial photographs taken in 1944 indicate, how- 

 ever, that some coconut trees were still present on several 

 islands. In 1946, Fosberg visited the atoll and reported the 

 results of his botanical survey and collection of Enewetak 

 plants with those from other atolls in the Marshall Islands 

 (Fosberg, 1955). Taylor (1950) described the marine and 

 terrestrial vegetation and the plant species he encountered 

 when he visited the atoll in 1946. At that time, Pisonia 

 had been cut on Ikuren, Jedrol, and Alembel; military 

 activity had also destroyed some of the vegetation on 

 Lujor, Alembel, Runit, Japtan, and Jedrol; and the islands 

 of Enewetak, Medren, and Enjebi had been reduced to 

 "wastes of white sand" between buildings with a few 

 weeds and scrubby coconuts. Runit, however, was com- 

 pletely occupied by a formal coconut grove, except for a 

 military installation at the south end. 



Aerial photographs taken in 1956 show that the flora 

 of almost all the islands was affected by military activity 

 during the nuclear test program conducted from 1948 to 

 1958. The islands of Louj through Boken (Irene) were 

 almost bare, as were Runit, Boko, and Bokandretok. 

 Enewetak, Medren, and Enjebi were covered with build- 

 ings, and only a few plants grew on these islands among 

 the structures and roadways. Most of the other islands sup- 



ported scrub vegetation or were partially cleared, and only 

 the leeward islands from Ikuren through Biken were rela- 

 tively undisturbed. 



The effects of the nuclear test program on the biota 

 and the environment at Enewetak and Bikini were 

 extensively studied by the Applied Fisheries Laboratory of 

 the University of Washington, later renamed the Labora- 

 tory of Radiation Biology. Their results were reported in 

 UWFL series, in published papers, and in journalistic form 

 in the book Proving Ground (Hines, 1962). 



An article by St. John (1960) provides a comprehen- 

 sive record of the land plants found on the atoll up to that 

 time. It gives a systematic account of species recorded, 

 with notes on islands, collectors, and dates. Also included 

 are a key to species, index to genera, and other data help- 

 ful to an understanding of the flora of the atoll. 



The long-term effects on the vegetation because of the 

 nuclear test program were primarily those resulting from 

 destruction of habitats and the removal of soil and vegeta- 

 tion from the islands (St. John, 1950; Biddulph and Cory, 

 1952; Palumbo, 1962). Some abnormalities, including 

 tumors, calcium deficiency, growth irregularities, abnormal 

 fruits and flowers, color abnormalities, and sterility, were 

 found in plants near test sites (St. John, 1950; Biddulph, 

 1950; Biddulph and Cory, 1952; Biddulph and Biddulph, 

 1953). However, habitat disturbance and removal of the 

 soil with loss of organic matter, inorganic nutrients, and 

 water retention capability apparently had more lasting 

 effects on the vegetation than the radioactivity. With the 

 destruction of protective habitats, exposure to adverse 

 environmental factors such as salt spray and drying winds 

 was greater. 



Following the conclusion of nuclear testing on 

 Enewetak in 1958, the atoll was used for various other 

 military and semi-military purposes during the 1960s and 

 early 1970s. The Pacific Cratering Experiment (PACE) pro- 

 gram bulldozed Aomon to the water table level and 

 detonated nonnuclear explosives which left several small 

 craters on the island. 



The Enewetak Marine Biological Laboratory (EMBL) 

 was established in 1954. An extensive reference collection 

 of atoll biota, including marine and terrestrial plants, has 

 been gradually gathered, and the laboratory has provided 

 facilities for a large number of visiting scientists. Specimens 

 for the reference collection were contributed by 

 G. R. Baker, E. H. Bryan, P. Colinvaux, V. Frey, 

 M. Gilmartin, J. Lamberson, P. Lamberson, I. E. Lane, 

 M. A. Lee, H. St. John, and R. Warner. Some botanical 

 studies have been made through the laboratory and are 

 described in the laboratory annual reports (Bryan and Lee, 

 1975; Lee and Lee, 1978). 



In 1957 to 1958, the University of Hawaii, the U. S. 

 Weather Bureau, and the Joint Task Force Seven con- 

 ducted microclimatic weather observations at Enewetak. 

 During that study, Lane made botanical collections and 

 notes and contributed a detailed section, which is included 

 in that report, on the vegetation of some of the islands 

 (Lane, 1960). 



