COGITIC EVOLLTION OF MaN 615 



Thus Holmes {183: 164) well says: "Psychologists nowadays 

 with comparatively few exceptions agree in regarding intelligence 

 not as a faculty standing in sharp contrast to instinct, as was 

 formerly taught, but as one resting on a foundation of instinct 

 and growing out of behavior of the purely instinctive type. 

 The term intelligence is used here in the wider sense as embrac- 

 ing all those forms of profiting by experience through the forma- 

 tion of associations. It therefore includes psychic activity 

 ranging from simple associative memory to compjex trains of 

 reasoning. What distinguishes intelligence from instinct is 

 that in the latter the connections between acts are based upon 

 hereditary organization, whereas in the former they are estab- 

 lished through experience. The apparently new thing involved 

 in intelligent behavior is the power of forming associations. So 

 far as we can judge of the psychic states of an animal from its 

 behavior, animal intelligence in its first manifestations consists 

 in repeating acts which bring pleasure and in avoiding things 

 which cause pain, and a discussion of the transition from in- 

 stinct to intelligence naturally involves a consideration of the 

 role of pleasure and pain as agents of accommodation." 



The present writer would entirely agree with the above 

 position, except that he would substitute for the word "pleas- 

 ure" the expression ''satisfied stated For pleasure, as applied 

 in human and evidently also in mammalian psychology, would 

 represent a combination of several satisfied states of the organ- 

 ism, and in which combination no — or at most entirely minor^ 

 unsatisfied or discordant elements entered. For as with chem- 

 ical actions and reactions, as with movements of root stem or 

 leaf parts of plants, as with the motions of Amoeba or Para- 

 moecium, so with higher animals; the result of every proenvironal 

 change is to establish for a time a satisfied state. 



Now in connection with H. Spencer's and Holmes' {1S3: 170) 

 position as to why "animals which took pleasure in following 

 acts that brought them benefit were preserved and those that 

 did not behave in this manner were eliminated," Holmes asks 

 — "But why does an animal tend to repeat an act that brings 

 it pleasure and avoid one that produces pain?" "It seems so 



