658 Causes and Course of Organic Evolution 



animals, or certain of them, the possession of morahty akin 

 to that of man." And again, after speaking of the capacity 

 that the dog shows of distinguishing between right and wrong, 

 he proceeds: "It must also distinguish between the right 

 and the expedient — what would be most for its own interest 

 to do. In other words it is just as apt as man is, and not more 

 so, to take a selfish view of all affairs — to consider how they 

 are likely to affect its own personal interests. The choice 

 that is finally made between the right, the expedient, and 

 the wrong is determined by a variety of considerations — 

 by conflicting emotions, by the balancing of probabilities and 

 inclinations, by the degree or kind of temptation, by the pres- 

 ence or absence of witnesses, especially human, by other spe- 

 cialities of an animal's position, by the nature and extent of 

 its moral training, by the character of the rewards and pun- 

 ishments offered on previous occasions" (49, I: 176). 



Sense of guilt, sense of duty and responsibility, of justice 

 and injustice, of truth and falsehood, are all shown by Lindsay 

 to be typical of various animals, but he wisely observes in 

 closing his chapter: "It has to be remarked that the moral 

 virtues are illustrated mainly or only in those animals that 

 have directly or indirectly received their moral training from 

 man — such animals as the dog, elephant, and horse (49 y I: 

 185). 



In his section also on "Morality not a thing exclusively 

 human" Sutherland (202, 2: 10) aptly remarks: "There is 

 much that is moral in the humblest human community; there 

 is not a little that is moral in the conduct of many of the lower 

 animals." And again "among ourselves the credit of the 

 right conduct is freely and warmly allowed to the mother who 

 works for her children, who denies herself many an innocent 

 pleasure in order that she may feed and clothe and properly 

 train her little family. Shall we deny the same applause to 

 the savage mother who carries her babe on her weary shoulders 

 through many a parching journey, who will risk her life for 

 it, and toil till she is ready to drop rather than that it should 

 suffer from hunger or danger? . . . Yet if the savage 



