XL THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 
Applications of science, I say, for these things have not come 
fortuitously, nor as natural developments by the art of the inventor, 
from principles known at that time. They are due, at least in their 
modern form, to principles of later discovery. It has been the work 
of science to discover new laws of nature, to study the conditions under 
which they operate, to measure effects and, generally, to prepare a 
store of knowledge upon which the inventor or constructor may draw. 
Science has been built up by accretions of knowledge, inductions 
to general principles, and deductions therefrom to particular cases. 
While these form the basis of practical applications, each of these 
applications has called for new inductions as to the properties of the 
materials dealt with, which again lead to further applications, and so 
science and applications of science, hand in hand, are ever widening 
the bounds of knowledge. 
In this way have all the arts of manufacture been built up. To 
illustrate, we may refer to the construction of a machine, say a dynamo. 
The designer aiming to produce a machine for certain uses, uses formule 
derived by electrical science to calculate the forms and dimensions of 
the several parts. He requires iron of a certain quality, wire of certain 
sizes or resistances, a particular kind of insulation, and many other 
things, which he orders from the respective manufacturers. Each 
of these manufacturers produces his goods according to formule or 
recipes, each of which is the result of research of some kind and probably 
embodies the application of several abstruse sciences. The supplying 
of goods according to specifications of dimensions and quality has 
become such a commonplace matter that we connect it with the sciences 
which make it possible only by an effort of the mind. We are apt to 
think of the complicated processes involved as having been developed 
by rule of thumb methods, or through the cleverness of individual 
workmen. 
The value of labour saving machinery may be estimated in various 
ways. It has been reckoned that in the United States, the cost, in 
human labour, of raising a given quantity of wheat is one eighteenth, 
and that of raising corn is one seventh of what it was fifty years ago. 
Sir William Ramsay, in his presidential address to the British Asso- 
ciation at Portsmouth, gave a calculation of the amount of horse- 
power developed by burning coal in the factories of the British Isles. 
He estimated it as equivalent to the labour of twenty men for each 
family, as if each had twenty slaves working for them. He expressed 
a doubt, however, whether this had resulted in increased leisure. 
However this may be in the British Isles, there is manifest on this 
side of the Atlantic a continual tendency to the shortening of hours of 
manual labor, as well as to increase in wages. The latter of course 
