248 
&c. Where heaps of stones have been 
thrown down and then cleared away, on the 
open ground one may find Red Poppy, Fumi- 
tory, Shepherd’s Purse, Persicaria, Spurrey, 
Charlock, Wild Oat, &c., weeds that have 
strayed there from the cornfield or elsewhere 
quickly colonizing the new ground. 
Antiquity of the Highways.—It is a common 
fallacy to suppose that the earliest roads were 
made by the Romans. But since there are a 
great number of other roads of importance, 
and certainly early origin, not made like those 
of the Romans, it is better to consider that 
these other roads are the earlier, and that the 
Romans took the roads they found and im- 
proved them themselves. 
This is, moreover, shown by the occurrence 
along Roman roads of implements of the 
Bronze and Neolithic Ages, and Pre-Roman 
earthworks and burial-places with pottery, &c., 
as well as tumuli and other remains of Roman 
age. 
The situation of some of the oldest sites of 
early civilization along the highway is in any 
case largely responsible for the introduction of 
plants into this country. Flax and some of 
the cereals were brought by the early peoples 
from the Continent, and the subsequent col- 
onization of the country by Anglo-Saxons, 
Danes, Normans, and others has in each case 
augmented the original native flora, and it 
was largely by the agency of the ancient high- 
ways that these plants found their way into 
the districts where now they are considered to 
be native. 
High-level Roads and Low-level Roads.— 
Owing to the effect of the Ice Age it was not 
possible in the Palaeolithic or early Stone Age 
for any direct tracks to be made across the 
country as in later times, nor was man then 
able to construct such roads, for his imple- 
ments were of the crudest character, and his 
intelligence of no higher order. When the 
climate became ameliorated, man in the New 
Stone Age or Neolithic period was able to 
traverse the country more easily, and means 
of communication became a necessity as the 
beginnings of trade and agriculture became 
possible. 
So it is found that there are certain types of 
ancient road which date from the ensuing era 
or Bronze Age. The low-lying country was 
then of a marshy and unsuitable character for 
cultivation, and impassable, so that the roads 
at first ran along the ridges, and are known 
as ridgeways. Remains found along these 
roads are the earliest. Next to these were 
hillside roads, which ran along the sides of 
the valleys or the hills dividing them. These 
were made in the late Bronze Age. Of a still 
HINTS AND: NOTES 
later type are the harrow ways of the South of 
England, which are of late Celtic Age, just 
preceding the Roman period, and it is probable 
that these were largely utilized by the Romans 
in making their own way across the country. 
All these types are high-level roads, and the 
low-level roads were not made until the country 
was brought under cultivation and drainage 
after the felling of forests. 
The distinction between these types of roads 
is important in estimating the relative age of 
introduction of plants by such means as roads. 
Roadside Habitats.—Though a roadside ap- 
pears to present extremely uniform conditions 
at first sight, in reality there is a good deal of 
diversity. A solitary bush by the wayside 
may form exactly the habitat for such a plant 
as Hemp Nettle, which requires such protec- 
tion, but not that of a moist ditch. 
The macadam at its margin or on old 
unfrequented roads affords a habitat for a 
number of characteristic plants, such as Silver- 
weed and Common Cinquefoil. Along the 
sward at the side of the road grow the usual 
meadow or pasture plants, varying with the 
soil. On clay in early spring on open ground 
the Lesser Celandine may be seen, on sandy 
loamy soil later appears the Upright Meadow 
Crowfoot. 
The ditch affords a habitat for moisture-loy- 
ing plants, such as Watercress, Willow-herbs, 
Figwort, and in wide ditches one may find 
Duckweed and Starwort, or Water Buttercup. 
The bank of the hedge affords a shelter for 
numerous plants that require shade and pro- 
tection, such as the Herb Robert, Jack-by-the- 
Hedge, Avens, White Dead Nettle, Nettle, 
Docks of various kinds which grow near 
water, with Sedges and Rushes and many 
others. The three-nerved Sandwort and Chick- 
weed grow in the hedge bottom, as do Arch- 
angel and Moschatel. 
In the hedge itself grow Hawthorn (wide- 
spread), Elder, Sloe, Buckthorn, Cornel, 
Blackberry, Rose, Field Maple, Guelder Roses, 
and such trees as Oak, Ash, Beech, Wych and 
Conmon Elm, &c. 
There is frequently a little scrub at the side 
of the road, in some parts made up of Sloe or 
Furze or Bramble, amongst which many other 
plants, as Grassy Stitchwort, &c., will grow. 
Further variety is afforded by the occasional 
occurrence of ponds or streams by the way- 
side. 
Limits of Roadside Vegetation.—Soil alone 
does not cause the variation to be noticed in a 
roadside flora. Much depends upon the alti- 
tude of a road also, apart from the effect this 
usually has upon the upkeep of the road. 
Above 1000 ft. cultivation ends, and with this 
