22 journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology. 



button and Z pulled the loop. The last two times Z both turned 

 the button and pulled the loop. Here Z learned to get out of the 

 box by imitating X, the less intelligent of the two. Y learned 

 from Z, and X learned from Y. 



Let us consider the nature of the associations formed in a case of 

 instinctive imitation. X knows how to get out of the box. Y 

 has been tested but has not succeeded in learning to get out. Y 

 sees X pulling at the knot and he instinctively scratches at it a 

 little, until X succeeds in pulling it hard enough to open the door. 

 Both pass out and are fed. A few more times X opens the door, 

 assisted in part by Y. Now if Y is put into the box alone and he 

 opens the door by pulling the knot what associations have been 

 formed I The first time he imitated X in scratching at the knot, 

 the act was an instance of instinctive imitation, for he had no 

 knowledge of an end to be attained beyond the mere performance 

 of the act. But when simultaneously with Y's scratching, X 

 opens the door, and they both secure food, the condition has been 

 provided for the formation of an association between the scratch- 

 ing at that spot and the opening of the door. If upon being put 

 back Y should scratch and thus open the door, the association 

 formed would be quite independent of X, for the first time X 

 opened the door Y did not associate it with the pulling of the knot 

 by X, but with his own scratching at or near the knot. The first 

 time Y scratched at the spot the stimulus was X scratching at that 

 spot; the second time the stimulus was food to be obtained. 



Not only is instinctive imitation of great importance in itself, 

 but it is also important in that it leads up to voluntary imitation. 

 It seldom happens that a cat learns by going through the act with 

 the trained cat only once; generally it must see and help the imi- 

 tatee perform the act many times before it is able to perform it 

 alone. 



Now in all these trials, after the first one, the imitator either 

 looks on or participates in the act with a knowledge of the end to 

 be attained. Here we have to some extent voluntary imitation, 

 for the imitator is influenced not only by his own movements, but 

 by seeing the other cat perform similar movements. The next 

 step in the learning process is to form the association by observing 

 the other cat perform the act and by sharing with him its benefits. 



Let me point out more clearly the different steps involved in 

 learning by imitation. 



