BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH xlix 
embryo. While we cannot say that the embryo is predelineated 
we can say that it is predetermined’’—words almost precisely like 
those used by him twenty years later when dealing with this subject. 
In 1887 he published another paper on this general subject, 
entitled ‘‘A Contribution to the History of the Germ Layers of 
Clepsine”’ in which he extended his former observations on the 
cleavage, orientation of cleavage planes, origin of teloblasts and 
germ bands, origin of the mesenteron, and the origin of the ecto- 
derm and its products. And in the same year in a paper on 
‘“‘Ookinesis,’” he came back to the phenomena of maturation and 
fecundation, which he had treated in his first paper, and gave 
a very suggestive and comprehensive review and analysis of these 
phenomena. 
Whitman’s general point of view regarding the problems of 
development are made particularly plain in his biological lectures 
and addresses. In his address before the Zoological Congress of 
the Worlds Columbian Exposition, on ‘‘The Inadequacy of the 
Cell Theory of Development” he discussed these problems in 
a striking and suggestive manner. At this time the work of 
Wilson and others had just shown the possibility and importance 
of tracing individual blastomeres throughout the development 
from the time of their appearance until they give rise to particular 
portions of the embryo, the cleavage thus constituting ‘‘a visible 
mosaic;’’ shortly before, Roux had shown that the cleavage of 
the frog’s egg was a ‘“‘mosaic work; at the same time the work of 
Driesch and other experimentalists was leading to a directly oppo- 
site opinion. In this conflict of opinion Whitman took a strong 
and independent position, basing his conclusions not merely on 
comparative embryology but also upon the comparison of proto- 
zoa and metazoa. He protested against the view that organiza- 
tion is the product of cell formation, and insisted that ‘ organi- 
zation precedes cell formation and regulates it.” He contrasted 
the Cell-doctrine with what might be called the Organism-doc- 
trine. He insisted that, ‘‘an organism is an organism from the 
egg onward, quite independent of the number of cells present,”’ 
that cleavage is not a process by which organization arises, but 
that organization precedes cleavage. ‘‘The test of organization 
