ANATOMICAL ILLUSTRATION 947 
however, even in the improved sketches, a mixture of observa- 
tion and tradition, with a stronger inclination to preserve the 
traditional than to let go of it and depend on observation. 
The date at which sketches of anatomical subjects were first used 
is uncertain. There is a tradition that Aristotle employed anatomi- 
cal plates in his teaching, but no remnants of thera are known. 
There are known, however, manuscript illustrations of anatomy 
dating back to the twelfth century, and furthermore, some of the 
manuscript sketches of the early part of the fourteenth century 
have a recognized genetic connection with the earliest printed 
illustrations of anatomy. For example, Sudhoff has recently 
published copies of the diagrams used by De Mondeville, about 
1304, to illustrate his lectures at Montpellier, and the connection 
between these pictures and those published by Peyligk in 1499, 
and by Hundt in 1501 is undoubted. There are other known 
correlations between manuscript sketches and early printed 
figures that will be mentioned later in connection with a consider- 
ation of the printed sketches. 
The earliest printed illustrations of anatomy occur in the Fas- 
ciculus Medicine of Ketham of 1491, and, from that time to the 
publication of the Fabrica of Vesalius in 1548, there are about 
one hundred different anatomical cuts. Some of these pictures 
are duplicated in different treatises so that the enumeration of 
figures in the different printed books would exceed this number. 
This statement does not include the seven hundred to eight 
hundred anatomical sketches of Leonardo da Vinei, none of which 
were published until much later. In addition to the printed 
books of the period there were anatomical plates printed and 
sold separately. To this latter group belong the figure of the 
skeleton by Richard Helain, printed in Niirnberg in 1493, and 
its modification, by Griininger of 1497, the anatomical plates of 
John Schott of 1517, the plates of Vesalius of 1538, ete. 
The pictures of this period are little known to anatomists, 
accordingly it is the printed illustrations of anatomy from 1491 
to 15438 that are to be brought under consideration in this paper. 
The writer has had for personal examination the printed books 
containing the pictures referred to with one or two exceptions 
JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY, VOL. 22, No. 4 
