Craig, Expressions of Ef?iotioti in Pigeons. 35 



tions. Since the feathers of the head are slightly raised, they swell 

 out around the eye and give somewhat the effect of a frown. Whether 

 these changes are sufficient to account for the total change in ex- 

 pression of the eye, I do not know. The important point, in any 

 case, is, that the change in expression of this one important feature 

 is just as marked as the change in appearance of the bird as a whole. 

 The sounds emitted under the influence of fear are various. Those 

 ordinarily given in these circumstances are a hiss and a snapping of 

 the bill. Both of these, however, are so feeble that they appear to 

 be but impotent relics of a once powerful snap and hiss. They are 

 so feeble, indeed, that an observer recognizes them by seeing a pufiing 

 movement and seeing the bill close, rather than by hearing either the 

 hiss or the snap. A dove in extreme terror (especially when acting 

 with tense exertion, as when a wild one is struggling in the hand, 

 may utter powerful grunts or even a sort of scream. But in ordinary 

 cases the frightened dove expresses all its emotion in the attitude and 

 the movements of defense, not in any effort to make sounds. It 

 appeals strongly to the eye but not at all to the ear. 



3. Alarm. 



Fear is the emotion shown by doves toward an enemy at close 

 quarters ; alarm is the emotion shown toward an enemy, or a possible 

 enemy, in the distance. The alarm-note is heard many times every 

 day, for the doves are always on the lookout for dangerous-appearing 

 objects, especially for the appearance of a hawk in the sky. 



The bodily changes in the expression of alarm (Plate I, Fig. 1) 

 evidently serve two purposes : — first, to prevent the enemy, so far 

 as possible, from seeing the dove; second, to allow the dove, on the 

 other hand, to see the enemy. The first purpose is served by changeFs 

 which reduce the apparent size of the body to a minimum : the contour 

 feathers are all appressed until they lie as close as possible, the tail 

 and wings are closed, and the wangs pressed tight against the sides. 

 The second pur])ose is served by the bird standing high on the legs 

 and stretching the neck in a manner which shows that a great strain 

 accompanies the concentration of attention upon the alarming object. 



