HOPKINS: CHARACTER AND OPINIONS OF WILLIAM LaNGLAND. 243 



"Englisch was it neuere," (C, IV., 343). The passage is chiefly of 

 interest as showing that Langland was in his later years paying especial 

 attention to the subject, perhaps in connection with the revision of 

 his poem. The passage ends with a comparison of mankind to a sub- 

 stantive, and of Deity to an adjective of "three true terminations." 



Langland's interest in grammar is also shown in the B-text (B, XV., 

 365); he there terras it the "ground of all" and complains that it no 

 longer receives proper attention, unless from children: — no new clerks 

 can versify fair, or formally endite, and not one among a hundred can 

 construe an author in any language but Latin or English. In the 

 corresponding passage in the C-text he omits the implied praise of 

 French, and states only that none can now construe naturally what 

 poets made. In both passages one detects that Langland was very 

 proud of his own knowledge of the theory and practice of this science. 



2. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL THEORIES. 



As Langland's whole structure rests upon a moral basis, a difficulty 

 arises in making a clear distinction between what is ethical and what 

 is economic. The expressions of his political opinion have reference 

 chiefly to the duties which the several classes of society owe each 

 other in accordance with Scriptural law.* 



Classes of Langland's classification of society is fivefold, com- 

 Society. prising king, knights, clergy, commons, and plowmen 

 (B. Prol. 1 12-120). Their general relation to each other is specified 

 as follows (Ibid): — 



Then came there a kintr, knighthood him led, 

 Might of the commons made him to reign; 

 And then came kind wit, and clerks he made 

 For to counsel the king, and the commons save. 



The king, and knighthood, and clergy as well, determined that the 

 commons should provide for themselves, and presumably for the rest; 

 and the commons therefore contrived crafts, and for profit of all 

 ordained plowmen to till and labor. The king and the commons 

 and kind wit the third shaped law and loyalty, that each might know 

 his own. 



Text C (I, 139) varies this passage in a manner that is very sug- 

 gestive. The king reigns not specifically by might of the commons, 

 but "by much might of the men," which may be interpreted to mean 

 knights instead of commons. Instead of the king, it is conscience 

 and kind wit that with knighthood decide as to the first duty of the 

 commons. Lastly, instead of establishing a separate class of plow- 

 men, the commons simply make a plow, which presumably any of 



* Compare with the discussion of moral duties. 



