HOPKINS: CHARACIER AND OPINIONS OF WILLIA.M LANGLAND. 247 



constantly increasing privileges, and in defining the other, of his 

 exact legal status. Or he may have in mind the distinction pointed 

 out by Skeat (Notes, 169) between the two principal classes of vil- 

 leins, the first of whom "were allowed many indulgences, and even 

 in some cases, a limited kind of property;" and all of whom. Freeman 

 states, became entirely free by the end of the fifteenth century. 



It is evident that by plowmen Langland means laborers attached 

 to the land, because (C, IX., 331 ) after having described the food 

 and implements of the plowman, he makes a comparison, in the main 

 unfavorable, between him and the "laboreres that han no londe to 

 iyuen on bote here handes;" and it was probably this movable con- 

 tingent that was in such demand after the pestilence, and concerning 

 whom a law was passed limiting wages, and prohibiting traveling 

 from one parish to another. That Piers has some property rights is 

 shown by his making his will, and in its specifications (C, IX., 95J; 

 but still he owes allegiance to his lord Truth, holds under him, and 

 receives from him instructions as well as deputed power. 



My conclusion then is that Piers Plowman, as he at first appears, 

 is a villein of the highest class. So far as he has a political signifi- 

 cance, it is as a member of the commons; but in the nature of things 

 he can have little until his emancipation is complete.* 



Clersy. Xhe office of the clergy is purely spiritual, and 



though they, especially the higher prelates, do meddle with political 

 matters, they have no business to do so, except in an advisory capac- 

 ity. Even in the matter of collecting tithes, their authority is non- 

 political. They possess however certain rights of protection over 

 members of their own body and others, illustrated by the right of 

 sanctuary, benefit of clergy, and even the neckverse (C, XV., 129) 

 that may deliver a thief from the gallows. 



Econoinio Economic theories, properly so called, are hardly 



eories. ^.^ ^^ found in the poem; but rather economic facts; 



though occasionally Langland gives expression to an isolated opinion 

 that has an economic bearing, as for instance the following: 



" III marchaundise }'s no mede, ich may it wel avowe. 



Hit is a permutacion a-pertelicii o pene-worth for another." 



(C, IV., 315). That is, in trade is no reward or bribe, but simply 

 fair and open exchange, presumably taking account of labor involved 

 as well as of the value of the commodities. 



The "interesting allegory concerning questions of natural econo- 

 my" mentioned by Ten Brink (Early Eng. Lit., p. 360) is an allegory 

 concerning the want that preceded the pestilence, and the demand for 



•For discussion of the religious siguiHciiuce of the charat-ter see topic Christ «.< Piers 

 Plowman. 



