HOPKINS: CHARAC'IKK AND OPINIONS OK \V1 1.l.IA M I.ANCW.AND. 257 



Plays, and sometimes toward the south, from tlie traditional point of 

 view. As to constitution and government ( C, II., 104 ff.), there 

 are among the angels ten orders of knighthood, and we may conclude 

 that the multitude of the redeemed are the commons, and that among 

 them there arc degrees of bliss, for the thief who repented upon the 

 cross (C, X\'., 132) is not seated with the saints and martyrs, but 

 u])on a far lower level. 



Purgatory. Langland believes with the church that souls repent- 

 ant, but who have not made full restitution (C, XIII., 65: see topic 

 i'enance) may be purified in purgatory, and that the prayers of the 

 good, masses, and special services avail to lighten their punishment. 

 To sing at such services was his own employment (C, VI., 46). 

 Good deeds enable kings and knights to pass purgatory easily (C, X., 

 9). Those who take bribes shall yield them again at one year's end, in 

 a full perilous place called purgatory (B, VI., 42). The patient poor 

 ];ass purgatory sooner than the rich (C, XIV., 31), and through 

 perfect faith, one may pass purgatory penanceless (C, XII., 296). 



The Evil -"^s was the contemporary belief (Skeat, Notes, 



J«»i)irit. 25S), to Langland Lucifer is the chief of the fallen 



angels, the Prince of Hell, while Satan, the Uuke of Death, is merely 

 a subordinate under Lucifer. Chaucer (Monks Tale, line 14) applies 

 the name Sathanas to Lucifer after his fall. la the passage where 

 Langland introduces both (C, XXL, 262 ft.) Professor Skeat points 

 out that there is some confusion in their traditional characters, since 

 to Lucifer and not to Satan is ascribed the temptation of Eve (C, 

 XXL, 315). But the characters are clearly differentiated. Satan 

 counsels armed resistance to the approach of Christ; Lucifer knows 

 this to be vain, but in his turn would meet Him with a legal plea, 

 which Satan perceives to be useless. Subsequently Lucifer's sub- 

 ordinates accuse him of having lost to them their joy in heaven, and 

 now through his deception of Eve the lordship of hell is also to be 

 forfeited. L'or this deception Lucifer is bound, while the rest flee 

 and hide. 



Lucifer was formerly a member of the chief order of knighthood in 

 heaven (C, II., 105). Believing that he was wittier and worthier 

 than his Master (C, \T., 188), he sought to establish a kingdom for 

 himself in the north part of heaven (C, IL, 112) but on his way 

 thither he failed and fell, and all his fellows; some in earth, some in 

 air, some in hell deep ^Lucifer lowest of them all, though still 

 retaining his leadership. 



Why Lucifer sought the north is a question Langland declines to 

 answer, that he may spare the feelings of northern men (C, II., 105). 

 We might take the statement (Ibid. 134^ that active men need no 



