APPENDIX ON PRACTICAL WORK. 159 
didynamous and tetradynamous may, with advantage, be replaced by 
the expressions “2 long and 2 short” and “4 long and 2 short.” 
When the sepals, &c., are united together, the terms gamosepalous, 
gamopetalous, and syncarpous, may be replaced by using the word 
“united,” while “united by anthers” is equivalent to syngenesious. 
(2) Adhesion. The three important terms hypogynous, perigynous, 
and epigynous, cannot be conveniently replaced, and their exact 
meaning must be mastered. These terms are best applied to the 
flower as a whole, but they may also be used in reference to corolla 
and stamens. Long custom has made it impossible to dispense with 
the terms “superior” and “inferior” as applied to calyx and ovary. 
Both cannot be superior or inferior in the same flower, for a superior 
calyx is accompanied by an inferior ovary, and vice versé. A superior 
ovary is one that is “free,” 1.2, is attached to the receptacle ouly by 
its base, and can readily be dissected out. An inferior ovary on the 
other hand is so firmly fused to the hollow receptacle that 1t cannot 
be dissected out, and the sepals, petals, and stamens appear to grow 
on the top of it. Such an ovary, enclosed in the receptacle, forms a 
swelling at the top of the flower-stalk, as clearly seen in snowdrop 
and fuchsia. Hypogynous and perigynous flowers possess superior 
ovaries, while the ovary is inferior in all epigynous flowers. In 
describing stamens, the terms epipetalous and gynandrous may be 
replaced by the expressions “united to petals” and “united to pistil.” 
Teachers of elementary classes are strongly advised to replace as 
many of the difficult terms as possible on the lines just indicated, 
otherwise pupils are apt to ignore facts, and waste much time in 
trying to learn a lot of imperfectly understood words. This defeats 
the chief end of botanical finstruction, 7.¢., to give a thorough training 
in habits of accurate and detailed observation. 
It will give a greatly added value to descriptive work to study 
the uses of the various parts and of their arrangements. Such 
things as display of foliage leaves to best advantage for performance 
of their functions, modes of climbing, protection of buds and flowers 
from stress of weather and attacks by animals, storage of reserve 
materials, pollination, and dispersal of seeds, may be mentioned as 
presenting numerous features of engrossing interest. A most valuable 
book of reference in this connection is Kerner’s “ Natural History of 
Plants,” translated by Professor F. W. Oliver (Blackie & Son). 
Classification is too much neglected. The reasons for placing a 
common British plant in its natural order should also be fully appre- 
ciated. Much benefit is to be derived from field excursions. In 
identifying plants a British Flora is essential, and Bentham’s (Lovel 
Reeve) will be found the simplest. Those who already possess a fair 
knowledge of systematic botany will find Hayward’s “ Botanist’s Pocket- 
Book” (Bell & Sons) an invaluable companion out of doors, while 
Oliver’s “Elementary Lessons in Botany” (Macmillan & Co.) is an 
admirable introduction to classification. 
I. Hasir.—A judgment as to the kind of plant has often to be formed 
from a small part of it. A woody stem points to a perennial, and if a 
cross-section shows annual rings (p. 38), this is certain. Leathery leaves 
generally belong to perennial evergreens. On the other hand, an isolated 
