158 
In spite of the unfavourable character of the site and the 
difficulties of the task, Peter carried through the enterprise, 
though 200,000 labourers are said to have died during the work. 
Meanwhile Charles had completed his Polish campaign, and 
compelled Augustus to resign his crown in favour of Stanislaus 
Leszezynski. He now prepared to meet the Russians. But 
Peter retreated, and drew Charles after him. The treacherous 
conduct of Mazeppa, the slowness of the Swedish Generals, and, 
above all, the severity of the Russian winter, were fatal to the 
Swedes, and they were utterly defeated at the battle of Pultowa. 
The Lecturer then dealt briefly with the various foreign enter- 
prises which occupied Peter’s mind till his death, in 1725, and 
also with the tragic story of the Tsarévitch, Alexis, who was 
tortured and finally put to death by his father. 
To form any idea of the magnitude of the internal changes 
and reforms brought about by Peter, it is necessary to realise the 
appalling ignorance and superstition of the Russians of that day. 
They were distinguished, we are told, by “‘an utter absence of 
morality or any sentiment of self-respect, honour, or duty.” 
few could read or write, and their real pleasure was drink. An 
Ukase for establishing provincial schools, issued by Peter, was 
met by a deputation, begging for mercy: ‘‘ Master, we have 
always done our duty, why will you punish us ?” 
After his Western tour, the Tsar returned full of eagerness to 
introduce Western customs and ideas. All Russians were ordered 
to shave off their beards, to wear Huropean costume and to 
smoke. The terem, the apartment where the women were 
secluded, was abolished, and the women were called out to take 
their place in society. Periodical receptions, under precise regu- 
lations, were ordered, the duties of the host and hostess strictly 
defined, and the invitations sent out by the Chief of Police. 
People breaking the rules were punished with the knout. The 
guests were to dance, and Peter first performed the steps before 
the gentlemen, who then had to imitate what they saw. 
With his imperfect education, new ideas seemed to come 
helter-skelter, as it were, from the brain of the Tsar. Big things 
and little equally attracted his attention, and at every turn we 
seem to see him leading and driving his people in the way he 
wanted them to go. 
He altered the Calendar, established schools and colleges, and 
even gave his people a new language. Picture Galleries, 
Museums, an Academy of Fine Arts, and Hospitals, all appear 
for the first time. 
