ARTIFICIAL AND NATURAL SYSTEMS. 411 
groups of a higher order, namely, the classes and other divi- 
sions. While it must be evident, therefore, that all the know- 
ledge we necessarily gain by an artificial system is the name of 
an unknown plant; on the other hand, by the natural system, 
we learn not only the name, but also its relations to the plants 
by which it is surrounded, and hence get a clue to its structure, 
properties, and history. Thus, supposing we find a plant, and 
wish to ascertain its name, if we turn to the Linnzan System, 
and find that such a plant is the Menyanthes trifoliata, this 
name is the whole amount of the knowledge we have gained ; 
but by turning to the Natural System instead, and finding that 
our plant belongs to the order Gentianacex, we ascertain at once 
from its affinities that it must have the tonic and other proper- 
ties which are possessed by the plants generally of that order, 
and, at the same time, we also learn that it accords in its struc- 
ture with the same plants ; and hence, by knowing the name of 
a plant by the Natural System, we may at once learn all that is 
most important in its history. It is quite true that all the 
orders, as at present constituted, are by no means so natural 
as that of the Gentianaceze, but this arises from the present im- 
perfection of our systems, and can only be remedied as our 
knowledge of plants extends ; even a system, devised as per- 
fectly as possible one day, may be deficient the next, in conse- 
quence of new plants being discovered which might compel us to 
alter our views, for at present the Floras of many regions of the 
globe are imperfectly known, and those of others almost entirely 
unknown. Suflicient, however, is now known of plants to enable 
us to establish certain great divisions according to a natural 
method, and which after discoveries are not likely to affect to 
any important extent. The present imperfections of the Natural 
System are, therefore, comparatively unimportant, and will no 
doubt disappear as our knowledge of the Flora of the globe 
becomes extended. 
Having now described the general characters upon which the 
artificial and natural systems depend, and the particular merits 
and disadvantages of the two kinds of systems respectively, we 
proceed in the next place to describe the special characters 
upon which such systems are founded, commencing with those 
of an artificial nature, which, however, will be only treated of 
very briefly. 
Section 1. ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION. 
THE first artificial system of any importance, of which we have 
any particular record, is that of Cesalpinus, which was promul- 
gated in 1583. Only 1520 plants were then known ; and these 
were distributed into fifteen classes, the characters of which were 
chiefly derived from the fruit. The next systematic arrangement 
of an artificial character was that of Morison, about the year 
