35 
54'5 years, Scotland in 54°8, Ireland in 178, Norway in 50°2, 
Austria in 80, the German Empire in 54°8, Prussia in 47°5, Italy 
in 93, and France in 534 years. It was worthy of note that, 
although France and Ireland stand lowest on the list, Canadian 
French and American Irish are very prolific. 
The distribution of power in Europe was effected by the 
varying growths of populations. Figures were given showing that, 
comparing 1815 with 1880, Russia has very slightly increased its 
proportion of the total European population; Germany and 
England have very greatly increased their proportion ; while Austro- 
Hungary and still more France have greatly declined in the com- 
parative scale. 
Urbanization formed an important feature of recent years. 
In 1861, the urban population of England and Wales formed 62°3 
per cent. of the whole, in 1881 it had risen to 66°6 per cent. 
Much of this increase was due to immigration from rural districts ; 
in Brighton the whole of its increase in excess of that for the 
whole country was due to immigration. The alleged depopulation 
of rural districts had been exaggerated ; they had remained nearly 
stationary. Owing to the fact that urban populations were re- 
plenished largely by young persons at anage of low mortality, their 
age-distribution was favourable to a low rate of mortality. Dr. 
Richardson some years ago stated to the Corporation-of Brighton 
that the presence in Brighton of old and worn-out lives must add 
about 1 per 1,000 to its annual death-rate. But on examination 
Dr. Newsholme found that the death-rate of last year should have 
been 15°57 instead of 15°04 per 1,000, had the population of 
Brighton been composed like that of the country as a whole. In 
other large towns the correction required was much greater than 
this. In spite of their favourable age-constitution, urban popula- 
lations have a higher mortality than rural. This was owing to 
density of population, the accumulation of refuse in neighbour- 
hood of houses, and other causes. As indicating the greater at- 
tention to sanitation in towns, it was satisfactory that while the 
urban death rate in 1861-70 was 20°5 per cent. higher than the 
rural, in 1888 it was only 9‘2 per cent. higher. Dr. Farr had laid 
down the law that the mortality of a town held a definite propor- 
tion to its density. By examples, however, it was shown that this 
supposed law was controverted by present experience ; and there 
was absolutely no reason, with increased attention to the laws of 
health, why our towns should not approach and perhaps attain as 
high a standard of health as did the healthiest rural districts. 
The remarkable decline in the English death-rate since the 
enforcement of the Public Health Act was then shown in detail. 
This decline meant, for instance, that in the year 1888 there were 
130,000 fewer deaths than would have occurred had things gone 
on as in the previous decennium. This decline might be 
