WOODS AND FORESTS. 313 



series, the Rosaceous shrubs begin to occupy the ground 

 in the order given above. They are able to grow over 

 and kill out most of the flowering plants which are 

 soon reduced to their normal proportions. The Haw- 

 thorn and Roses soon begin to branch, and grow 

 outwards above the level of the Brambles and Rasps. 

 Amongst them Birches and other trees may be noticed, 

 which, in course of time, grow up and form a new 

 forest, in which all these shrubs are to be found in a 

 subordinate position. It is scarcely possible to find in 

 Britain opportunities for studying the later stages ; as 

 the forest is either artificially planted up almost 

 immediately, or it is promptly turned into fields, or into 

 agricultural land. 



At the edges or border of the woods, a botanist is 

 sure to find a much more varied flora than in the centre. 

 This is not surprising, because it is on the border that 

 all these transitional forms occur. Once the general 

 idea of the succession has been understood, it is very 

 easy to trace the Campion stage, the Foxglove stage, and 

 the Brambles, Roses, Hawthorns, and Birches along the 

 outside of every well-grown plantation. Of course 

 when it is fenced by walls, there are few to be 

 discovered as the three first mentioned are all generally 

 under four feet in height and are unable to develop. 



But the same series is also specially employed by 

 woods to re-occupy land once covered by forests. 

 Most of our arable and pastureland was originally 

 oak, beech, or pine forests ; and, if protected from 

 grazing animals, and untended, it would revert to the 

 original flora. 



Thus, neglected corners of fields on good and fairly 

 dry soil will soon show a profusion of tall herbaceous 

 plants, such as Heracleum spondylium, Centaurea nigra, 



