Chap. in. PIIYSIOPHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. 213 



The 23i"'iicipl<^*^ I'li^^ down by Oken, of Avhioh this classification is the practical 

 result for Zoology, may be suniined up in the following manner: The grades or 

 great types of Animals are determined by their anatomical systems, such as the 

 body and head ; or the intestines, and the flesh and senses. Hence two grades 

 in the animal kingdom. Animals are, as it were, the dismembered body of man 

 made alive. The classes of animals are the special representation in living fonns 

 of the anatomical systems of the highest being in creation. 



Man is considered, in this system, not only as the key of the whole animal 

 kingdom, but also as the standard measure of the organization of animals. There 

 exists nothing in the animal kingdom which is not represented in higher combina- 

 tions in Man. The existence of several distinct plans of structure among animals is 

 vii'tually denied. They are all built after the pattern of Man ; the differences 

 among them consist only in their exhibiting either one system only, or a larger 

 or smaller number of systems of organs of higher or lower jjli^'siological impor- 

 tance, developed either singly, or in connection with one another, in their body. 

 The principles of classification of both Cuvier and Ehrenberg are here entirely 

 negatived. The principle of Cuvier, who admits four different plans of structure 

 in the animal kingdom, is, indeed, incompatible Avith the idea that all animals 

 represent only the organs of Man. The principle of Ehrenberg, who considers 

 all animals as equally perfect, is as completely irreconcilable with the assumption 

 that all animals represent an unequal sum of organs; for, according to Oken, the 

 body of animals is, as it were, the analyzed body of Man, the organs of which 

 live singly, or in various combinations as independent animals. Each such com- 

 bination constitutes a distinct class. The principle upon which the orders are 

 founded has already been explained above, (Chap. II., Sect. III., p. 154.) 



There is something very taking in the idea that Man is the standard of appre- 

 ciation of all animal structures. But all the attempts which have thus far been 

 made to apply it to the animal kingdom as it exists, must be considered as com- 

 plete failures. In his different works, Oken has successively identified the systems 

 of organs of Man with different groups of animals, and different author-s, who 

 have adopted the same principle of classification, have identified them in still dift'er- 

 ent ways. The impracticability of such a scheme must be obAdous to any one 

 who ha.s satisfied himself practically of the existence of different plans of structure 

 in the organization of animals. Yet, the unsoundness of the general principle of 

 the classifications of the jjhysiophilosophers should not render us blind to all that 

 is valuable in their special writings. The works of Oken in particular teem with 

 original suggestions respecting the natural affinities of animals ; and his thorough 

 acfjuaintance with every investigation of his predecessors and contemporaries shows 

 hiiu to have been one of the most learned zoologists of this century. 



