ON THK PROGRESS AND PRESENT STATE OF ORNITHOLOGY. 219 



We may obtain a great amount of fixity, in the position at least, if not 

 in the extent of our groups, by invariably selecting a type, to be permanently 

 referred to as a standard of comparison. Every family, for instance, should 

 have its type-subfamily, every subfamily its type-genus, and every genus its 

 type-species. But it must not be supposed, with some theorists, that these 

 types really exist as such in nature ; they are merely examples or illustrations 

 selected for convenience to serve as permanent fixed points in our groups, 

 whatever be the extent which we may give to their boundaries. By adhering 

 to this notion of types we may often indicate these groups with greater pre- 

 cision than it is possible to do by means of definition alone. 



2. Another desideratum in ornithology is to discover some sure mode of 

 distinguishing real species from local varieties. The naturalists of one school 

 are disposed to attribute nearly all specific distinction to the accidental in- 

 fluence of external agents, while others regard the most trivial characters 

 which the eye can detect as indicating real and permanent species. Between 

 these two extremes, the judicious and practised naturalist has seldom much 

 difficulty in keeping a middle course, and perhaps in ornithology the cases 

 of ambiguity are less frequent than in many other departments of nature ; 

 still the student will be sometimes at a loss to distinguish between those cha- 

 racters which were impressed on a species at its creation, and those which 

 may be reasonably attributed to external agents, and we must look for fur- 

 ther research to solve these difficulties. 



3. We are greatly in want of more information as to the habits, anatomy, 

 oology, and geographical distribution of the majority of exotic species. 

 With no other data than are furnished by dried skins, we are too often com- 

 pelled to guess at, rather than to demonstrate, the true affinities of species. 

 However essential may be the arrangement of specimens in museums, they 

 supply only a portion of the requisite evidence, and a vast and fascinating 

 field of research awaits the naturalist who shall devote himself to observing, 

 as well as collecting, the ornithology of foreign regions*. The anatomy 

 of many genera and even families of birds is wholly unknown, and it would 

 be well if some student would devote himself especially to this department, 

 and endeavour to make a classification of birds by their anatomical characters 

 alone. If such a system were found to coincide with the arrangements which 

 have been based on external characters, the strongest proof would be fur- 

 nished of its reality and truth. 



4. There yet remain many extensive regions of the world, of whose orni- 

 thology we know little or nothing. Great as have been the zoological col- 

 lections made of late years by individuals and governments, there is still 

 much virgin soil for the naturalist to cultivate. The birds of the vast Chi- 

 nese empire are only known by the rude paintings of the natives, though 



of the " binomial method," that mainspring of modern systematic nomenclature; for one author 

 would habitually indicate species by their generic and another by their subgeneric names, and 

 the same word would be sometimes used in a generic, sometimes in a subgeneric sense, so that 

 instead of a uniformity of language being adopted by zoologists, nothing but a vague and 

 capricious uncertainty would result. If it were possible to establish a uniform system of 

 trinomial nomenclature, so as always to indicate every species by its generic and subgeneric 

 as well as by its specific name, the use of subgenera might indeed be tolerated, but such a me- 

 thod would be far too cumbrous and oppressive for practice, and I must therefore enter my 

 humble protest against subgeneric names altogether. Not that I object to the subdividing 

 large genera for convenience of reference into defined though anonymous groups ; but let not 

 these groups be designated by proper names, unless their characters be sufficiently prominent 

 to warrant generic distinction. 



* Collectors would double the value of their specimens if they would invariably attach to 

 them a small label, stating at least the sex, date, and locality, and adding any other observa- 

 tions which they may be able to make. 



