PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE (JREAT BASIN. 315 



tnrtiions. It at length si>ri>ii(ls out into rTnniboldt Lake, shallow and siibalkalino, and 

 from this the little remaining surplus water liuds its way in a manner similar to I lie 

 Carson Uiver into tli<^ sanu' siidc. 



The descent of L',(K)() feet from eastern Nevada into the Cireat Salt Lake l!asiti is 

 almost immediate, nearly the wbolo northwestern portion of Utah being an alkaline 

 desert, broken by fewer mountain or hill ranges, and but little above the level of the 

 lake. The lake itself is tor the most part very shallow, in no place over 50 feet in 

 depth, the waters a concentrated solution of salt. As with all these sheets of water 

 the shore line and conseciuent area vary greatly in different years. 



The intermediate ranges of the Hasin are very similar to each other in character. 

 They vary in altitude from one to 0,000 feet above tlie valleys, culminating in occa- 

 sional peaks scarcely ever so rugged that they cannot be ascended from some direction 

 upon mules. They are cut up by numerous ravines or "cafKnis,'' which are nariow, 

 very rarely with an acre of interval or surface approaching to a level, the sides some- 

 times rocky or precipitous, more frequently sloping to the summits of the lateral ridges. 

 In geological structure these ranges are more or less complicated, showing rocks of all 

 ages from the azoic to the glacial period, here nietamorphic rocks, quartzites, slate, and 

 limestones, there an outburst of granite or syenite, volcanic rocks of often the most 

 diverse and picturesque colors, or broad table-lands of lava overflow. The erosion and 

 deeomi)osition of these various rocks have filled the valleys to a monotonous level with 

 a detritus of gravel, sand or silt, and given to them that accumulation of alkaline salts 

 which is so marked a peculiarity of the country. 



With few exceptions, also, these mountains are for most of the year wholly desti- 

 tute of water, with but small rivulets in the principal canons, frequently with only 

 scanty si»rings here and there at their bases, irrigating a few square yards of ground. 

 Even where the mountain sui)ply is sufficient to send a stream into the valleys it is 

 usually either soon entirely evaporated, sinks into the porous soil, or becomes demor- 

 alized with alkali and is "lost" in the mud of the plain. The lowest portion of nearly 

 every valley is occupied by some extent of alkali flat, where in the winter season the 

 water collects and the softened clay-like mud is bottomless and im|)assable. As 

 the moisture evaporates under the heat of coming summer the level naked surface 

 becomes hard and pavement-like, or covered with a snowy incrustation or deposit of 

 salt or carbonates. The springs and wells even are often more or less saline, and 

 thermal springs are not rare. 



The chief exceptional ranges in northern Mevada, which from their greater altitude 

 receive heavier snowfalls in winter, retained through the year in greater or less rjuantity 

 in the more sheltered depressions of the higher peaks, and which in summer are subject 

 to more abundant rains, are the West Humboldt i^Iountains, 100 miles east of the 

 California State line, the East Humboldt Mountains, 75 miles from the Utah line, and 

 the Toyabes, nearly intermediate between the two. Star Teak is the highest ])oint of 

 the first range, with an altitude of nearly 10,000 feet, but with little deposit of snow 

 and the vegetation of the summit scarcely subalpine. Several constant streams here 

 flow from the princii>al eastern eanous and reach the middle of the valley, where they 

 supply iriig;ktion foi' as many small ram-hes. The Toyabe IJange, especially in its 

 southern jrortion, is higher, several of its peaks having an altitude of from 10,000 to 

 12,000 feet, with more snow and fuller streams. The waters of the eastern slope are spent 

 in Smoky \'alUy. On the western side lies lieese l!i\er, flowing northward toward the 



