6 
BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. 
The Toes are sometimes three or four (the Ostrich has but two), sometimes two in 
together for part of their length, as in the Kingfisher. 
front and two behind; two in front and one behind; or, in one family (not North 
Some families have the toes joined or fused 
America), all four turned forward. 
Some species have webbed 
feet, others have the toes armed with eurved talons, and so on; but the various 
differences with which we wish to become familiar can better be illustrated than 
described. 
Foot of Sparrow 
Foot of three-toed Woodpecker 
Types of Feet.— Land Birds. 
THE BILL. 
The Bill consists of an upper and a lower mandible, both of which are 
movable. The shape is of great assistance in determining the family to which the 
species belong. Four principal types are recognized : — 
1. 
2. 
Epignathous. Upper mandible longer than lower; the tip bent or hooked over 
the end of lower mandible. (Examples: Hawks, Gulls, Petrels, Parrots. ) 
Hypognathous. Lower mandible, longer than upper mandible. (Examples: 
Black Skimmers, Rhynchops. ) 
Paragnathous. Both mandibles of about equal length. 
Metagnathous, Mandibles crossed. (Example: Crossbill. Zowia.) 
