156 A MANUAL OF THE BIRDS OF AUSTRALIA. 
Adult male —Head, hind-neck, throat, and fore-neck chestnut ; lower hind-neck, 
back, outer scapulars, tail, and entire under-surface pure white including the under 
tail-coverts, axillaries, and under wing-coverts ; the small marginal coverts round 
the bend of the wing white like the bastard-wing, greater coverts, secondaries, 
and inner primaries, some of the latter tipped with dark brown ; primary-coverts 
and primary-quills black, the basal portion white ; median wing-coverts and long 
innermost secondaries very dark brown ; some of the inner scapulars dark brown, 
others are brown on the inner web and white on the outer one; small feathers 
round the eye white which widens out and forms a patch below the eye ;_ bill black ; 
iris dark red ; tarsi and feet slate-blue. Total length 457 mm. ; culmen 87, wing 225, 
tail 86, tarsus 94. 
Adult female—Similar to the adult male. 
Immature and Nestling—Apparently undescribed. 
Nest.—Made on little heaps of stiff grass. 
Eggs.—Clutch, four; ground-colour light stone to creamy-yellow, some of 
the former tint have a faint olive-green shade, some are heavily blotched towards 
the thicker end, others sparingly covered with spots, dots and freckles of dark 
amber-brown and black, with a few obsolete spots of slate-grey ; axis 48-51 mm., 
diameter 32-36. 
Breeding-season.—September to December. 
Distribution and forms.—Australia and straggling to New Zealand. Two 
subspecies have been distinguished, as: R. n. novehollandie Vieillot, from Eastern 
Australia ; and R. n. stalkeri Mathews from, the Northern Territory as being smaller, 
especially in the bill measurement, and with a darker chestnut head. The north- 
western birds are attached to the latter, but may be separable. 
Superramity CHARADRIOIDEA. 
We have arranged in this superfamily four families, Oystercatchers, Turnstones, 
Plovers (restricted) and Wattled Plovers. Here again the distribution is erratic and 
interesting, the first two families consisting of generalised forms of different range, 
the third world-wide range of both specialised and generalised species, while the last 
named is a specialised group of definite range. Oystercatchers occur throughout 
the world save in the Arctic and Antarctic zones. Turnstones breed in the Arctic 
Regions but migrate southwards even to the Antarctic, similarly to and in company 
with Waders. Some Plovers, as the true Plovers, have the same habits but breed 
in the North Temperate zones ; while the Shore Plovers breed throughout the world, 
some migrating from the north southwards, others stationary in the south and show- 
ing much specialisation. Other forms, as the Sand Plovers, agree in similar manner, 
but while the Shore Plovers favour the shores of the countries they breed in for nesting 
purposes, the Sand Plovers go inland to sandy plains in the north. The Wattled 
Plovers are probably the most interesting group as having localised themselves in 
the more or less tropical zone, one or two have extended their ranges outside. 
Generally specialised, they have continued their specialisation in detail developing 
huge facial wattles in some cases, large fighting spurs on the wings in others, and 
crests on the head in others; some have retained a hind-toe, others have lost it; yet 
withal maintaining a general coloration recognisable at sight and peculiarly constant 
throughout the series, though showing duller or brighter plumage changes as well. 
There is variation in the presence or absence of the hind-tce throughout the super- 
family, as well as in the nature of the tarsal covering, but no species has the toes 
fully webbed, though some have slight webs. The bill is generally short, long only 
in the Oystercatchers. 
The osteological and anatomical! features are generally as recorded for the sub- 
order, no detailed account of the various species and forms having yet been prepared. 
