INTRODUCTION 3 
observations in illustration of his general remarks (which are to a con- 
siderable extent physiological or bearing on the subject of reproduction) 
than of an attempt at a connected account of Birds. Some of these 
observations are so meagre as to have given plenty of occupation to his 
many commentators, who with varying success have for more than three 
hundred years been endeavouring to determine what were the Birds of 
which he wrote ; and the admittedly corrupt state of the text adds to 
their difficulties. One of the most recent of these commentators, the late 
Prof. Sundevall—equally proficient in classical as in ornithological know- 
ledge—was, in 1863, compelled to leave more than a score of the Birds 
unrecognized. Yet it is not to be supposed that in what survives of the 
great philosopher’s writings we have more than a fragment of the know- 
ledge possessed by him, though the hope of recovering his Zwixd or his 
*Avatopukd, in which he seems to have given fuller descriptions of the 
animals he knew, can be hardly now entertained. A Latin translation 
by Gaza of Aristotle’s existing zoological work was printed at Venice in 
1503. Another version, by Scaliger, was subsequently published. Two 
wretched English translations have appeared. 
Next in order of date, though at a long interval, comes Gaius Plinius 
Secundus, commonly known as Pliny the Elder, who died a.p. 79, author 
of a general and very discursive Historia Naturalis in thirty-seven books, of 
which most of Book X. is devoted to Birds. A considerable portion of 
Pliny’s work may be traced to his great predecessor, of whose information 
he freely and avowedly availed himself, while the additions thereto made 
cannot be said to be, on the whole, improvements, Neither of these 
authors attempted to classify the Birds known to them beyond a very 
rough and for the most part obvious grouping. Aristotle seems to 
recognize eight principal groups:—(1) Gampsonyches, approximately 
equivalent to the Accipitres of Linnzeus ; (2) Scolecophaga, containing most 
of what would now be called Oscines, excepting indeed the (3) Acantho- 
phaga, composed of the Goldfinch, Siskin and a few othors; (4) Senipo- 
phaga, the Woodpeckers ; (5) Peristeroide, or Pigeons ; (6) Schizopoda, (7) 
Steganopoda and (8) Barea, nearly the same respectively as the Linnean 
Grallx, Anseres and Gallinz. Pliny, relying wholly on characters taken 
from the feet, limits himself to three groups—without assigning names to 
them—those which have “hooked tallons, as Hawkes; or round long 
clawes, as Hennes ; or else they:be broad, flat, and whole-footed, as Geese 
and all the sort in manner of water-foule ””—to use the words of Philemon 
Holland, who, in 1601, published a quaint and, though condensed, yet 
fairly faithful English translation of Pliny’s work.? 
About a century later came ASlian, who died about a.p. 140, and 
compiled in Greek (though he was an Italian by birth) a number of 
miscellaneous observations on the peculiarities of animals. His work is 
a kind of commonplace book kept without scientific discrimination. A 
1 By Thomas Taylor in 1809, and Cresswell in 1862. 
2 The French translation by Ajasson de Grandsagne, with notes by Cuvier (Paris: 
1830), is very good for the time. An English translation by Bostock and Riley 
appeared between 1855 and 1857. Sillig’s edition of the original text (Gotha: 1851- 
1858) seems to be the best. 
