508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1911. 
It will not be amiss to glance first at the results of the discussion 
and researches of scholars during the last three years. First of all, 
as to the age and origin of steelmaking, the most important stage 
in the history of the working of iron—it is unfortunate that nobody 
has attempted to solve this difficult problem. And, indeed, our 
sources here fail us completely, for the process of making and working 
fine steel was guarded by the ancients as a most profound secret 
known only to members of the same sect. The evil repute in which 
ironworkers were held by some peoples—apparently also by the 
earliest of the Israelites—must certainly in not a small measure be 
connected with the superstition of their neighbors, who ascribed 
skill in the making of fine steel weapons to the aid of evil spirits and 
demons. And it is self-evident that the masters of this art, the pros- 
perous sword-cutlers of the time, would not themselves divulge, much 
less write, upon the secrets of their trade. On the contrary, it was 
in their interest to foster popular belief in the supernatural origin of 
their workmanship, and thus to put a stop to all inquiry as to the 
real methods of their trade. The steel makers and workers were 
therefore looked upon either as artists by the grace of God, or as 
malignant sorcerers and wizards, and were treated accordingly. In 
either case the result was the same, the methods of steelworkers re- 
mained the secret of the sect and was under no condition betrayed. 
We can thus understand why such a learned man as Pliny could offer 
no definite data on the history of the steel industry, although he was 
well acquainted with the makers of fine steel. 
The oldest written direct information now known on the employ- 
ment and working of steel is the Biblical passage in I Samuel xiii, 
19-22. 
Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel: for the Philistines 
said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears: But all the Israelites went down 
to the Philistines, to sharpen every man his share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his 
mattock. Yet they had a file for the mattocks, and for the coulters, and for the forks, 
and for the axes, and to sharpen the goads. So it came to pass in the day of battle, 
that there was neither sword nor spear found in the hand of any of the people that were 
with Saul and Jonathan: but with Saul and Jonathan his son was there found. 
The implements mentioned above, according to my conception, can 
not possibly mean anything other than those of steel. And so also 
very probably in the following Biblical passages in Joshua xvii, 
16 and 18, by “chariots of iron” we should understand “chariots of 
steel:” 
And the children of Joseph said, The hill is not enough for us: and all the Canaanites 
’ that dwell in the land of the valley have chariots of iron, both they who are of Beth- 
shean and her towns, and they who are of the valley of Jezreel. 
But the mountain shall be thine; for it is a wood, and thou shalt cut it down: and the 
outgoings of it shall be thine; for thou shalt drive out the Canaanites, though they have 
iron chariots, and though they be strong. 
