igio] British Rule in India. 91 



ed money by a system of mutual credits. These societies are carefully 

 controlled and supervised by European officials, otherwise their affairs 

 would soon be in a hopeless condition. 



At first they met with not only apathy but opposition from the very 

 people whom they were intended to benefit and also from the educated 

 Indians. They looked upon them as infringing on an ancient right and 

 custom of the people. As the people understood them and became 

 familiar with them their opposition and apathy disappeared and now 

 they are extending very rapidly to the great advantage of the Agri- 

 culturalist. So much so that many of them who were always in debt 

 have now a small bank account. The Bunias fought the movement by 

 every means in their power and special legislation was required to com- 

 pel them to accept payment of the debts owing to them. This is one of 

 the best illustrations of what the Government is endeavouring to do to 

 ameliorate the conditions of the people. 



Famine. 



I come now to deal with one of the most awful and terrible scourges 

 that can afiflict any nation, namely famine. From the days of Buddhist 

 pilgrims from China to the latest administration report issued by the 

 Government of India, famine lies broad written across the pages of In- 

 dian history. The accounts of early famines are indeed meagre for in 

 the chronicles of courts, which cared little for the people, social calami- 

 ties find scant record. We know that famines were frequent in India 

 and frightful when they came, whether during native or British rule. 

 Severe Famines are now caused solely by the failure of the rains but in 

 the days of native rule they were frequently caused by war and plunder 

 also. In order to understand this better I shall briefly explain the 

 weather conditions. 



In the cold weather pressure is highest in the north of India, and lowest 

 in the south and the gradients and winds are feeble. During this period 

 from December to the middle of March the winter rains occur. They 

 give a fair amount of rain, especially in northwest India, while heavy snow- 

 fall occurs in the neighboring hills,but over the rest of the country the rain- 

 fall is unimportant. From March to June the weather gradually warms 

 up until in May and June the shade temperatures are generally over 

 100° and in some places they exceed 125°. During this period the soil 

 has rest. The leaves fall from the trees owing to the heat just as they 

 do here from the frost, and everything is parched. The people sit in their 

 villages and literally gasp for rain. In the meantime important 

 changes have been going on; the pressure gradients have become re- 

 versed, pressure now being high in the south and low in the north, 

 and the winds show the existence of two great air currents flow- 



