Physiography and War. 61 
faced about to a last retreat and defeat. Numerous examples of the 
dependence of strategy on geographical conditions appear in all the other 
fields of operation in the war, and volumes on this aspect of the subject 
might be written. 
The importance of physiographic knowledge and science in war is 
suggested by mention of a few of its contributions to war plans and 
work. Most countries have war colleges, general staffs, or other organi- 
zations for the study of strategical problems and the development and 
formulation of plans of attack and defense in war. 
In our own country the leading geographers volunteered their serv- 
ices and organized in the national capital a Board of Geographical In- 
formation that gave valuable aid to the government in the prosecution 
of the war. 
Accurate maps, indispensable for such study and planning, are pre- 
pared with great detail and accuracy in many countries. The Ordnance 
Survey, large scale maps of Great Britain and France, are marvels and 
models of the map maker’s art. The relief of the country, its streams, 
lakes, railways, roads, canals, cities, villages and even farmhouses are 
accurately indicated. Outline and slope are shown in contours or shad- 
ing, height by figures or contour intervals. Shores and off-shore waters 
are mapped, and depths, channels, shoals, lights and landings are indi- 
cated. Such maps are useful and instructive under peaceful as well as 
belligerent conditions, and, strange as it may seem, are easily obtain- 
able by schools and the general public in and outside of the countries in 
which they are published. That such maps easily get into the hands of 
possible present or future enemies admits of no doubt, and those who 
want them get them by means of indirection or espionage if not openly. 
The United States Geological Survey maps and the maps of the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey and of the Mississippi Commission are most excel- 
lent in accuracy and execution, and, while not published primarily for 
military use, have a high value in that direction. 
The army Signal Service calls to its aid the expert meteorologist, 
who observes the changes in the air and reports present and probable 
future weather conditions for the use of the various branches of the 
army. The infantry makes use of such information in timing attacks, 
such movements preferably being made in fair weather, unless in case 
of intended surprise. The artillery finds great advantage in knowing 
the air pressure, the direction and velocity of the wind, and even the 
temperature and humidity conditions of the atmosphere in finding ranges 
in firing. 
Weather cbservations and predictions are even more important in 
the Flying Service. The strength and direction of the wind, the prev- 
alence of cloud, or the probability of fog or cloud, are great factors in 
