119 
MALLOPHAGA OF OUR NATIVE BIRDS. 
Epwin J. Kout. 
The Mallophaga or biting bird lice constitute a group of insects that 
apparently excite little curiosity in the average individual. Moreover, lice 
in general are looked upon with disdain. Nevertheless, they do hold an 
interest for some individuals, those who do not hold themselves aloof from 
these minute parasites, and hold no fear of infestation. 
The earliest writings in which lice were mentioned and received attention 
were those of Francesco Redi, an Italian naturalist, in 1668. Other writ- 
ings followed by such men as Otto Fabricino (1780), De Geer (1778), and 
Linne (1789). Not much truly scientific work was done by these men; it 
was rather haphazard. Christian Ludwig Nitzsch, Professor of Zoology 
in the University of Halle, did the first real work that is recognized today. 
His descriptions were excellent. He made an attempt at classifying and 
naming the Mallophaga. This, the beginning of our present day nomen- 
clature, gave an impetus to real work along these lines. Such men as 
Denny, Giebel, Piaget, Taschenberg and others, continued the work with 
excellent results. 
Most of this early work was along taxonomic lines, that of describing, 
haming and classifying, but a few men, Kramer, Melnikoff, and Grosse did 
some work on anatomy. The work of Grosse in itself was not of a high 
order. No special attention was given to accuracy of description and draw- 
ings, consequently the work was crippled somewhat until our modern 
entomologists revised and improved upon it. 
In this country Herbert Osborn and A. S. Packard did the first work of 
any consequence. Osborn’s “Pediculi and Mallophaga affecting man and 
the Lower Animals’’ was the first real attempt in this respect. It was by 
no means complete. Much remained to be done. It was at this point that 
Vernon Kellogg took up the investigation of Mallophaga. He made ex- 
tensive collections, aimed at completeness in every respect. He made col- 
lections from most of the common birds of North America. Special atten- 
tion was paid to classification, to accurate descriptions and very accurate 
drawings. The internal anatomy was completely worked out. Furthermore, 
the old Nitzschian nomenclature was revised and brought up to date. In 
every way the work was of a high order and set a new standard in Mallo- 
phagan lines. 
The position of Mallophaga among the Insecta for a long time was a 
much-debated question. Each new student quite naturally shifted them 
from one position to another because little was known then concerning the 
anatomy and development of these insects. For a long time they were placed 
coordinate with or under the Pediculidae, for the reason that they were 
ectoparasites. However, it was discovered that Mallophaga have biting 
mouth parts, consequently they were placed in the Pseudo-Neuroptera 
along with various heterogeneous insects. Even the Pseudo-Neuroptera 
were broken up by Brauer and the Mallophaga now found themselves 
keeping company with Psocids and Termites under the Corrodentia. Fin- 
ally, in all this rearrangement of things pertaining to classification, Kellogg 
