422 I. P. Косн. 
present volume Fig. 8, р. 15, Fig. 18, р. 25 and Fig. 28, р. 30 as well 
as the description pp. 25—27). 
The channels on the surface of the ice represent one of the last 
stages of the fjord ice. Gradually the channels melt through; the 
bottom becomes full of holes, and the ice here is so weakened that 
it is ready to break up, as soon as the opportunity offers. 
Already in the month of June the drift ice has commenced to 
set off from the shore and to make the passage free of fjord ice. In 
July, when the fjord ice has detached itself from land, one may ex- 
pect to see the outermost part of the fjord opening up, in that the 
fjord ice breaks off, and begins to go adrift in an outward direction 
(see Fig. 86), but still the great mass of fjord ice forms one continuous 
sheet, the movement of which is prevented by islands, skerries and 
points. In August the innermost small bays and fjords are free of 
ice, or the ice in them is broken. The great mass of the ice out on 
the fjord is divided by a few cracks running the whole length; the 
channels are beginning to melt through, in short, the ice is crumbling. 
The first fohn storm which comes along now breaks off large 
portions of the ice and causes the whole mass to go adrift, so that 
along the west and north shores a broad belt of open water may 
form. 
The broken fjord ice has the surprisingly rapid motion of the 
drift ice. The wind and tidal currents set it adrift, causing it 
constantly to shift its position; where at a given moment one finds 
large stretches of open water, one may, a couple of hours afterwards, 
find the water blocked up with ice. The force with which the wind 
crushes the ice against the shore is very impressive. I have, in one 
case, seen how the fjord ice, during a summer blizzard, was crushed 
a long distance in across the land, while at the same time pushing 
a wall of pebbles and gravel before it. 
We have now come to the last stage of the fjord ice, and it 
would very soon disintegrate altogether, were it not for the fact that 
the winter at this period begins to make itself felt. Even during the 
warmest month of the summer, that is July, the temperature is 
frequently below zero, so that new ice forms on the water, and 
during the latter half of August, when the mean temperature is about 
zero, the new ice becomes so strong that it can hold for several 
days and is only broken up by the wind. It therefore becomes 
dependent upon the casual weather conditions of the individual year, 
whether or not the fjord ice disappears altogether. Strong and steady 
winds at the end of August and the beginning of September will 
quickly clear Dove Bugt of the remains of the fjord ice, whereas the 
