156 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
feet long, and from 5 inches square upwards, the trees are econo- 
mically utilised in this way. The part to enter the ground is left 
in its rough state, and that above ground is sawn square to the 
desired size. 
The preceding gives a description of the principal uses to which 
the oak is put, but there are many others, a description of which, 
however, would only be a repetition of those given. The oak 
forms the staple article in the woodyard, and certainly in its 
conversion requires more study and ability, acquired by practice, 
than that of any other tree, to enable the full amount of the tree 
to be profitably utilised. 
The ash ranks high in importance and usefulness amongst our 
native trees. Its elastic properties, and the toughness of its fibre, 
makes the tree of great value for numerous industrial purposes, 
and this fact has maintained for it the high value at which it is 
rated. Equivalent substitutes in respect of these qualities have 
not been found in importations from abroad. The insufficient 
home supply has for many years necessitated the substitution of 
foreign wood to meet the growing requirements, but its inferiority 
is grievously felt. 
In the manufacture of ash, long lengths are not the great 
consideration, and crooked growth is no objection for many 
purposes to which it is applied, especially for shaft wood. Cart 
and waggon shafts consume a considerable portion of this timber. 
These vary in length from 8 to 12 feet, and from 2} inches to 
4 inches thick. They are cut from the best butts, which as a rule 
contain a bend suitable for the article required. Straight clean 
butts are also largely used for broad hoops, which are more 
frequently cloven in long lengths from 6 to 10 feet. In their 
manufacture a process of steaming has to be undergone, making 
the piece perfectly pliable, so as to make a regular circle. Timber 
suitable for this purpose commands the highest price, and in its 
manufacture by cleaving little or no waste occurs. 
A large quantity of ash timber is used for handles for spades 
and shovels. The timber for this purpose is planked to 13 inch, 
and sawn out by a band-saw to the shape required in the handle. 
These being generally of a bent shape, there is necessarily a con- 
siderable amount of waste wood, but this is converted into bobbins 
and other small turned goods, for which the demand is practically 
unlimited in the manufacturing districts. The coach-building 
trade makes large demands on ash timber, but these lie in the 
