188 TRANSACTIONS OF ROYAL SCOTTISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
Although the Scots fir predominates largely over all other timber 
species, yet many extensive tracts are covered with beech, oak, and 
other hardwoods, wherever the soil is suitable for their growth. 
Spruce is the only other conifer in any quantity, silver fir or larch 
being rarely met with. The marshy land is principally occupied 
by birch, alder, or osiers, the latter being extensively cultivated 
along the banks of the Elbe, near Hamburg. ‘The area occupied 
by the hardwoods is gradually increasing, owing to the practice of 
undersowing the fir with beech or hornbeam, which, in certain 
cases, afterwards takes the place of the fir, although it is doubtful 
if the change is of great advantage from a financial point of view, 
except under the most favourable circumstances. 
On the poorer soils the Scots fir is grown entirely pure, and on 
these it forms unbroken masses many thousands of acres in extent, 
small patches of birch, alder, or willow in the boggy places being 
the only variation met with. Travelling through these extensive 
forests proves very monotonous, and a pleasant relief is experienced 
when one passes into a part stocked with hardwoods, or a mixture of 
fir and beech. The surface is principally covered with a thick 
grassy vegetation, heather existing in comparatively small patches 
only, although it probably formed the principal vegetation at one 
time. The bilberry (V. myrtil/ws) is also very abundant, and 
many other plants associated with dry sandy soils. Patches of a 
large coarse grass (Calamagrostis epigeios) are common, and it 
appears to be a suitable grass for fixing loose sand. Owing to this 
surface vegetation, natural regeneration is impossible on a large 
scale, although small patches may be seen here and there in thin 
places, and where the ground has been broken up by the extraction 
of roots, or other causes. In many cases, however, after clear fell- 
ings, and where the surface has been well stirred and broken, there 
appears to be no reason why it should not prove successful ; but, as 
re-sowing is more certain, and can be done at a small cost, the latter 
method is always adopted for restocking purposes. The game 
existing in these forests is principally represented by roe-deer, which 
are very numerous ; red deer, wild swine, and hares being also 
present in smaller numbers, while rabbits are comparatively scarce. 
In addition to the State forests, which constitute the main mass, 
every town and village possesses its forest of several hundreds or 
thousands of acres, as the case may be. Common rights to the pastur- 
age, dead wood, and litter exist in regard to these forests, and the 
miserable appearance presented by the portions so exposed, provides 
