ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE, AND HOW TO STUDY IT 11 
It is quite true that the man can think otherwise 
about his hunting, cycling, ete. He can discuss with 
his fellows the causes of successes and failures; he can 
even write a treatise on hunting. But when the hunter 
thinks matters over in his own mind after a day’s 
sport—when he goes so far as to seek for explanations, 
when he must perceive relations, do you conceive that 
his state of mind is absolutely impossible to the dog— 
that is, most of it? The case for the ape is stronger 
still, when we consider the wonderful resource he some- 
times shows in protecting his offspring, in co-operative 
defence, etc. 
Some writers, who assume a very conservative 
position in regard to animal intelligence, lay down the 
rule that we must in no case interpret an action as the 
outcome of the exercise of a higher faculty, if it can be 
interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which 
stands lower in the psychological scale. Hence they 
think that many of the actions of such animals as dogs, 
cats, ete., which some would attribute to reasoning or 
an analogous psychic process should be explained in 
some simpler way. But why should we bind ourselves 
by a hard and fast rule like this one? Is it not the 
truth at which we wish to get? For myself, I am be- 
coming more and more sceptical as to the validity of 
simple explanations for the manifestation of animal life 
whether physical or psychical. It is true the whole 
matter is made easier for the student, in that he can 
the more readily grasp and remember the opinions of 
others, processes which take up a large part of his time. 
If we analyse our own actions, especially the motives 
for them, with special care, how often do we realise that 
our fellow-creatures have judged us hastily and im- 
perfectly. That our motives for actions are often found 
to be far more complex than even we ourselves 
supposed at first, is a view of the case that was pre- 
