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accommodate the length and time of their marches, and the localities 
in which they rest and feed at different hours, to the requirements of 
their young ones.” 
It is a curious fact that most of the male elephants in Ceylon are 
what are called macknas in India, that is, tuskless males—not one in a 
hundred, according to Sir Emerson Tennent, being found with tusks ; 
nearly all, however, are provided with tushes. ‘These, he says, he has 
observed them “to use in loosening earth, stripping off bark, and 
snapping asunder small branches and climbing plants, and hence tushes 
are seldom seen without a groove worn into them near their extremities.” 
Sir Samuel Baker says that the African elephant uses his tusks in 
ploughing up ground in search of edible roots, and that whole acres 
may be seen thus ploughed, but I have never seen any use to which the 
Indian elephant puts his tusks in feeding. I have often watched mine 
peeling the bark off succulent branches, and the trunk and foot were 
alone used. Mr. Sanderson, in his ‘ Thirteen Years,’ remarks: ‘“ Tusks 
are not used to assist the elephant in procuring food ;” but he says they 
are formidable weapons of offence in the tusker, the biggest of whom 
lords it over his inferiors. 
The elephant usually brings forth, after a period of gestation of from 
eighteen to twenty-two months, a single calf, though twins are occasion- 
ally born. Mr. Sanderson says: ‘‘ Elephant calves usually stand exactly 
thirty-six inches at the shoulder when born, and weigh about 200 lbs. 
They live entirely upon milk for five or six months, when they begin 
to eat tender grass. Their chief support, however, is still milk for some 
months. I have known three cases of elephants having two calves at a 
birth. It cannot be said that the female elephant evinces any special 
attachment to her offspring, whilst the belief that all the females of a 
herd show affection for each others calves is certainly erroneous. 
During the catching of elephants many cases occur in which young 
ones, after losing their mothers by death or separation, are refused 
assistance by the other females, and are buffeted about as outcasts. I 
have only known one instance of a very gentle, motherly elephant in 
captivity, allowing a motherless calf to suck along with her own young 
one. When acalf is born the mother and the herd usually remain in 
that place for two days. ‘The calf is then capable of marching. Even 
at this tender age calves are no encumbrance to the herd’s movement ; 
the youngest climb hills and cross rivers, assisted by their dams. In 
swimming, very young calves are supported by their mothers’ trunks, 
and are held in front of them. When they are a few months old they 
scramble on to their mother’s shoulders, and hold on with their fore-legs, 
or they swim alone. Though a few calves are born at other seasons, 
the largest number make their appearance about September, October, 
and November.” * 
